SUMMARY Caveolae are specialized invaginations of the plasma membrane found in numerous cell types. They have been implicated as playing a role in a variety of physiological processes and are typically characterized by their association with the caveolin family of proteins. We show here by means of targeted gene disruption in mice, that a distinct caveolae-associated protein, Cavin/PTRF, is an essential component of caveolae. Animals lacking Cavin have no morphologically detectable caveolae in any cell type examined and have markedly diminished protein expression of all three caveolin isoforms whilst retaining normal or above normal caveolin mRNA expression. Cavin knockout mice are viable and of normal weight but have higher circulating triglyceride levels, significantly reduced adipose tissue mass, glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia, which characteristics constitute a lipodystrophic phenotype. Our results underscore the multi-organ role of caveolae in metabolic regulation and the obligate presence of Cavin for caveolae formation.

The expression of Sry in the undifferentiated, bipotential genital ridges of mammalian XY fetuses initiates testis development and is hypothesized to do so by directing supporting cell precursors to develop as Sertoli cells and not as granulosa cells. To directly test this hypothesis, transgenic mice expressing EGFP under the control of the Sry promoter were produced. After establishing that the transgene was expressed in fetal gonads similarly to endogenous Sry, the spatial and temporal expression of the Sry-EGFP transgene was investigated in developing gonads by using confocal microscopy and immunofluorescent histochemistry. This analysis indicated: (1) Sry is first expressed in cells located centrally in the genital ridge and then later in cells located at the cranial and caudal poles, (2) Sry is expressed exclusively in pre-Sertoli cells in the urogenital ridge, and (3) Sertoli and granulosa cells develop from a common precursor. These results support the hypothesis that Sry initiates testis differentiation by directing the development of supporting cell precursors as Sertoli rather than granulosa cells. Furthermore, the Sry expression pattern explains the nonrandom distribution of testicular and ovarian tissue in mammalian ovotestes.

The central dogma of mammalian brain sexual differentiation has contended that sex steroids of gonadal origin organize the neural circuits of the developing brain. Recent evidence has begun to challenge this idea and has suggested that, independent of the masculinizing effects of gonadal secretions, XY and XX brain cells have different patterns of gene expression that influence their differentiation and function. We have previously shown that specific differences in gene expression exist between male and female developing brains and that these differences precede the influences of gonadal hormones. Here we demonstrate that the Y chromosome-linked, male-determining gene Sry is specifically expressed in the substantia nigra of the adult male rodent in tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing neurons. Furthermore, using antisense oligodeoxynucleotides, we show that Sry downregulation in the substantia nigra causes a statistically significant decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase expression with no overall effect on neuronal numbers and that this decrease leads to motor deficits in male rats. Our studies suggest that Sry directly affects the biochemical properties of the dopaminergic neurons of the nigrostriatal system and the specific motor behaviors they control. These results demonstrate a direct male-specific effect on the brain by a gene encoded only in the male genome, without any mediation by gonadal hormones.

In mammals, the primary step in male sex determination is the initiation of testis development which depends on the expression of the Y-linked testis determining gene, Sry. The mechanisms by which Sry controls this process are unknown. Studies showed that cell migration from the adjacent mesonephros only occurs into XY gonads; however, it was not known whether this effect depended on Sry, another Y-linked gene, or the presence of one versus two X chromosomes. Here we provide genetic proof that Sry is the only Y-linked gene necessary for cell migration into the gonad. Cell migration from the mesonephros into the differentiating gonad is consistently associated with Sty's presence and with testis cord formation, suggesting that cell migration plays a critical role in the initiation of testis cord development. The induction of cell migration represents the earliest signaling pathway yet assigned to Sry.

The nuclear receptor transcription factor Dax1 is hypothesized to play a role in testicular development, although the mechanism of its action is unknown. Here, we present evidence that Dax1 plays an early essential role in fetal testis development. We hypothesize that upregulation of Sox9 expression in precursor somatic cells, a process required for their differentiation as Sertoli cells, depends on the coordinated expression of Dax1, Sry and another gene, Tda1. Our conclusion and model are based on the following experimental findings: (1) presence of a mutant Dax1 allele (Dax1-) results in complete gonadal sex reversal in C57BL/6JEi (B6) XY mice, whereas testes develop in DBA/2J (D2) and(B6×D2)F1 XY mice; (2) B6-DAX1 sex reversal is inherited as a complex trait that includes the chromosome 4 gene Tda1; (3) B6 Dax1-/Y fetal gonads initiate development as ovaries, even though Sry expression is activated at the correct time and at appropriate levels; (4) upregulation of Sox9 does not occur in B6 Dax1-/Y fetal gonads in spite of apparently normal Sryexpression; and (5) overexpression of Sry in B6 Dax1-/Y fetal gonads upregulates Sox9 and corrects testis development.

Previous reports suggested that humans and mice differ in their sensitivity to the genetic dosage of transcription factors that play a role in early testicular development. This difference implies that testis determination might be somewhat different in these two species. We report that the Fog2 and Gata4 transcription factors are haploinsufficient for testis determination in mice. Whether gonadal sex reversal occurs depends on genetic background (i.e., modifier genes). gonadal sex reversal ͉ haploinsufficiency ͉ sex determination ͉ Sry ͉ Sox9 D uring human fetal development, differentiation of the bipotential gonads into ovaries or testes depends on the proper dosage of transcription factors. For example, the presence of only a single functional copy of the autosomal transcription factor-encoding genes SF1, SOX9, or WT1 can result in the development of XY females, and duplication of a chromosomal region containing SOX9 can lead to the development of XX males (1-5). In contrast, the proper dosage of the transcription factors Sf1, Sox9, and Wt1 appears not to affect testicular development in mice because XY mice containing only a single copy of these genes develop testes (6-9). This apparent species difference suggested that the correct dosage of gonadal sexdetermining transcription factors is necessary for normal testis development in humans, whereas mice are less sensitive to these gene dosage effects (10-12).Studies in our laboratory indicate that genetic background plays an essential role in the process of gonadal sex determination in mice. Specifically, mice of the C57BL/6J (B6) inbred strain are exceptionally sensitive to disturbances in the early events of gonad development and thus provide a genetic ''litmus test'' for identifying genes that cause sex reversal. For example, the Sry POS gene carried on the Mus domesticus poschiavinus Y chromosome causes ovarian tissue development when present in C57BL/6J (B6) mice but not in DBA/2J (D2) or (B6 ϫ D2)F1 mice (13,14), and a mutant allele of the X-linked transcription factor Dax1 (Nr0b1) causes gonadal sex reversal in B6 but not D2 or (B6 ϫ D2)F1 XY mice (15). This ''B6 sensitivity'' is even stronger if the AKR/J Y chromosome (Y AKR ) is present. For example, if B6 mice are heterozygous for the T Orl mutation, they develop testes. If the Y AKR chromosome is present, however, they develop ovaries (16,17). These findings suggest that genetic background, not species differences, could explain apparent differences in transcription factor dosage sensitivity for gonad development in XY humans and mice. The fact that not all XY humans are sex-reversed if only a single copy of a normal SF1 or WT1 allele is present (18-20) supports this possibility, as does the fact that XY males carrying a mutant SRY gene can pass this allele on to XY daughters (for review, see ref. 21).To test the hypothesis that testis determination in XY mice is sensitive to levels of transcription factor gene dosage in a genetic background-dependent manner, we conducted experiments to determine wh...

In mammals, Sry expression in the bipotential, undifferentiated gonad directs the support cell precursors to differentiate as Sertoli cells, thus initiating the testis differentiation pathway. In the absence of Sry, or if Sry is expressed at insufficient levels, the support cell precursors differentiate as granulosa cells, thus initiating the ovarian pathway. The molecular mechanisms upstream and downstream of Sry are not well understood. We demonstrate that the transcription factor GATA4 and its co-factor FOG2 are required for gonadal differentiation. Mouse fetuses homozygous for a null allele of Fog2 or homozygous for a targeted mutation in Gata4 (Gata4ki) that abrogates the interaction of GATA4 with FOG co-factors exhibit abnormalities in gonadogenesis. We found that Sry transcript levels were significantly reduced in XY Fog2–/– gonads at E11.5, which is the time when Sry expression normally reaches its peak. In addition, three genes crucial for normal Sertoli cell function (Sox9, Mis and Dhh) and three Leydig cell steroid biosynthetic enzymes (p450scc, 3βHSD and p450c17) were not expressed in XY Fog2–/– and Gataki/ki gonads, whereas Wnt4, a gene required for normal ovarian development, was expressed ectopically. By contrast, Wt1 and Sf1, which are expressed prior to Sry and necessary for gonad development in both sexes, were expressed normally in both types of mutant XY gonads. These results indicate that GATA4 and FOG2 and their physical interaction are required for normal gonadal development.

SMOC1 and SMOC2 are matricellular proteins thought to influence growth factor signaling, migration, proliferation, and angiogenesis. We examined the expression and regulation of Smoc1 and Smoc2 in fetal gonad/mesonephros complexes to discover possible roles for these genes in gonad and mesonephros development. Smoc1 was upregulated at~E10.75 in a center-to-poles wave in pre-Sertoli and pre-granulosa cells and its expression was greatly reduced in Wt1, Sf1, and Fog2 mutants. After E13.5, Smoc1 was downregulated in an anterior-to-posterior wave in granulosa cells but persisted in Sertoli cells, suggesting a sexually dimorphic requirement in supporting cell lineage differentiation. Smoc2 was expressed in Leydig cells, mesonephroi, and Wnt4 mutant ovaries, but not wildtype ovaries. Using organ culture, we determined that Smoc2 expression was dependent on Hedgehog signaling in testes, mesonephroi, and kidneys.Overall, these results demonstrate that SMOC1 and SMOC2 may mediate intercellular signaling and cell type-specific differentiation during gonad and reproductive tract development.