Global drivers such as the growing human population, evolving consumer preferences, globalization, and climate change have put pressure on the agri-food sector to produce more livestock products with less land, feed and water. Taste, nutritional value, cost, convenience, source, animal welfare and environmental sustainability of food are criteria upon which purchasing decisions are made. In response, an environmental footprint analysis composed of greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient and water use efficiency, water quality, carbon storage and biodiversity has been completed for many commodities. However, as livestock production systems occur within complex agro-ecosystems, it is extremely challenging to formulate a single overall sustainability metric. There is no “silver bullet” to solve the environmental concerns of all livestock production systems as they operate under different constraints on different landscapes, with different water and nutrient cycles, and soil types. Furthermore, the lack of scientific evidence regarding the interactions between livestock production, human nutritional adequacy and the health of our environment makes it difficult for consumers to interpret this information and make informed food choices. This review examines these complex interactions and trade-offs, as well as the potential impacts of changes in consumer dietary choice on environmental sustainability, nutritional adequacy and land use.
Foods of animal origin, including beef, pork, and lamb, provide macro- and micro-nutrients which may be difficult to obtain in adequate quantities from plant-based foods alone. Nonetheless, recent literature suggests that a shift away from red meat in favor of plant-based diets can reduce household greenhouse gas emissions without adversely affecting nutrient intake. The objective of the current study was to examine the nutrient intake of consumers who eliminated red meat from their diet, compared with those who did not. The impact of red meat elimination on nutrient intake was estimated using inverse probability weighting with regression adjustment estimator and bias-corrected matching estimators, using data garnered from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey. We also examined if self-selected diets without red meat fulfilled the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals, included in Canada’s Dietary Reference Intake Tables. Adequate Intake (AI) was used when RDA could not be determined. Consumers who eliminated red meat from their diet reported significantly lower intake of several nutrients, including total saturated fatty acids, saturated 18:0 octadecanoyloxy fatty acid, protein, riboflavin, niacin, vitamins D, B6 and B12, and zinc, as compared with those who did not. Eliminating red meat also resulted in lower dietary cholesterol and sodium intake. Further, consumers who eliminated red meat reported mean daily intake levels below the daily requirements of Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, and Vitamins A, B6 and D. The results from this study suggest that elimination of red meat may lead to dietary substitutions that result in nutritional deficiencies for Canadian consumers.
Production of red meat including beef, pork, and lamb, has been associated with climate change and high intakes of these foods have been linked to risks of several leading chronic diseases. Reducing red meat consumption has been suggested as an option to address important health and sustainability challenges. Characterizing the sociodemographic factors associated with red meat consumption is an important first step in identifying strategies to translate information regarding sustainable food choices into policy and national dietary guides. The objective of this study was to characterize the demographic factors associated with the exclusion of red meat in consumer diets. Mixed-effects probit regression that accounts for the hierarchical structure of individuals clustered in ten provinces in 24-hr dietary recall data from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey (n = 10,117) was used to identify factors associated with dietary choices. Despite growing public discourse regarding the elimination of red meat, the results indicate that fewer than 5% of Canadians reported excluding red meat from their diet. Sex, education level, and race/ethnicity had a significant effect on red meat exclusion with single females (P < 0.000), individuals with at least a Bachelor’s degree (P < 0.001), and individuals who self-identified as African (P < 0.001), Asian (P < 0.001), and Oceanian (pP < 0.001) origin more likely to eliminate red meat. In contrast, households with children under age 25 (P < 0.001) were less likely to do so. The disparities in consumption patterns of red meat by sex, race/ethnicity, education, and family status can inform public education and policy initiatives using science-based information to improve the health and environmental sustainability associated with the Canadian diets.
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