Key message 2: diabetes and its consequences are costly to patients and economies We estimate that, in 2015, the overall cost of diabetes in sub-Saharan Africa was US$19•45 billion or 1•2% of cumulative gross domestic product (GDP). Around $10•81 billion (55•6%) of this cost arose from direct costs, which included expenditure on diabetes treatment (eg, medication, hospital stays, and treatment of complications), with out-of-pocket expenditure likely to exceed 50% of the overall health expenditure in many countries. We estimate that the total cost will increase to between $35•33 billion (1•1% of GDP) and $59•32 billion (1•8% of GDP) by 2030. Putting in place systems to prevent, detect, and manage hyperglycaemia and its consequences is therefore warranted from a health economics perspective. Key message 3: health systems in countries in sub-Saharan Africa are unable to cope with the current burden of diabetes and its complications By use of information from WHO Service Availability Readiness Assessment surveys and World Bank Service Delivery Indicator surveys and the local knowledge of Commissioners, we found inadequacies at all levels of the health system required to provide adequate management for diabetes and its associated risk factors and sequelae. We found inadequate availability of simple equipment for diagnosis and monitoring, a lack of sufficiently knowledgable health-care providers, insufficient availability of treatments, a dearth of locally appropriate guidelines, and few disease registries. These inadequacies result in a substantial dropoff of patients along the diabetes care cascade, with many patients going undiagnosed and with those who are diagnosed not receiving the advice and drugs they need. We also noted scarce facilities to manage the microvascular and macro vascular complications of diabetes. Additionally, despite calls for adding the care of diabetes and other cardiovascular risk factors onto existing infectious disease programmes (such as those for HIV), we found little evidence that such combined programmes are successful at improving outcomes.

Diabetes mellitus is an important and increasing cause of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Accurate epidemiological studies are often logistically and financially difficult, but processes of rural-urban migration and epidemiological transition are certainly increasing the prevalence of type 2 diabetes. Type 1 disease is relatively rare, although this may be related to high mortality. This diabetic subgroup appears to present at a later age (by about a decade) than in Western countries. Variant forms of diabetes are also described in the continent; notably 'atypical, ketosis-prone' diabetes, and malnutrition-related diabetes mellitus. These types sometimes make the distinction between type 1 and type 2 diabetes difficult. Interestingly, this is also a current experience in the developed world. As more detailed and reliable complication studies emerge, it is increasingly apparent that African diabetes is associated with a high complication burden, which is both difficult to treat and prevent. More optimistically, a number of intervention studies and twinning projects are showing real benefits in varying locations. Future improvements depend on practical and sustainable support, coupled with local acceptance of diabetes as a major threat to the future health and quality of life of sub-Saharan Africans.

Background Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has the highest burden of HIV in the world and a rising prevalence of cardiometabolic disease; however, the interrelationship between HIV, antiretroviral therapy (ART) and cardiometabolic traits is not well described in SSA populations.Methods We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis through MEDLINE and EMBASE (up to January 2012), as well as direct author contact. Eligible studies provided summary or individual-level data on one or more of the following traits in HIV+ and HIV-, or ART+ and ART- subgroups in SSA: body mass index (BMI), systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides (TGs) and fasting blood glucose (FBG) or glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c). Information was synthesized under a random-effects model and the primary outcomes were the standardized mean differences (SMD) of the specified traits between subgroups of participants.Results Data were obtained from 49 published and 3 unpublished studies which reported on 29 755 individuals. HIV infection was associated with higher TGs [SMD, 0.26; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.08 to 0.44] and lower HDL (SMD, −0.59; 95% CI, −0.86 to −0.31), BMI (SMD, −0.32; 95% CI, −0.45 to −0.18), SBP (SMD, −0.40; 95% CI, −0.55 to −0.25) and DBP (SMD, −0.34; 95% CI, −0.51 to −0.17). Among HIV+ individuals, ART use was associated with higher LDL (SMD, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.14 to 0.72) and HDL (SMD, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.11 to 0.66), and lower HbA1c (SMD, −0.34; 95% CI, −0.62 to −0.06). Fully adjusted estimates from analyses of individual participant data were consistent with meta-analysis of summary estimates for most traits.Conclusions Broadly consistent with results from populations of European descent, these results suggest differences in cardiometabolic traits between HIV-infected and uninfected individuals in SSA, which might be modified by ART use. In a region with the highest burden of HIV, it will be important to clarify these findings to reliably assess the need for monitoring and managing cardiometabolic risk in HIV-infected populations in SSA.

No abstract

Highlights• Diabetes in developing countries is increasing and often undiagnosed. In South Asians, diabetes and related metabolic abnormalities develop at a younger age and at a lower body mass index and waist circumference than in Whites. • Overall glycemic control and management of diabetes is suboptimal, driven by multiple factors (eg, unawareness, cost of drugs and insulin etc.), and the load of complications is high. • To stem this epidemic, strong actions for prevention and management are required using innovative and low-cost approaches. AbstractThere has been a rapid escalation of type 2 diabetes (T2D) in developing countries, with varied prevalence according to rural vs urban habitat and degree of urbanization. Some ethnic groups (eg, South Asians, other Asians, and Africans), develop diabetes a decade earlier and at a lower body mass index than Whites, have prominent abdominal obesity, and accelerated the conversion from prediabetes to diabetes. The burden of complications, both macro-and microvascular, is substantial, but also varies according to populations. The syndemics of diabetes with HIV or tuberculosis are prevalent in many developing countries and predispose to each other. Screening for diabetes in large populations living in diverse habitats may not be cost-effective, but targeted high-risk screening may have a place. The cost of diagnostic tests and scarcity of health manpower pose substantial hurdles in the diagnosis and monitoring of patients. Efforts for prevention remain rudimentary in most developing countries. The quality of care is largely poor; hence, a substantial number of patients do not achieve treatment goals. This is further amplified by a delay in seeking treatment, "fatalistic attitudes", high cost and non-availability of drugs and insulins. To counter these numerous challenges, a renewed political commitment and mandate for health promotion and disease prevention are urgently needed. Several low-cost innovative approaches have been trialed with encouraging outcomes, including training and deployment of non-medical allied health professionals and the use of mobile phones and telemedicine to deliver simple health messages for the prevention and management of T2D.

No abstract

No abstract

Executive Summary and Recommendations A diagnosis of diabetes or hyperglycemia should be confirmed prior to ordering, dispensing, or administering insulin (A).Insulin is the primary treatment in all patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) (A).Typically, patients with T1DM will require initiation with multiple daily injections at the time of diagnosis. This is usually short-acting insulin or rapid-acting insulin analogue given 0 to 15 min before meals together with one or more daily separate injections of intermediate or long-acting insulin. Two or three premixed insulin injections per day may be used (A).The target glycated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) for all children with T1DM, including preschool children, is recommended to be < 7.5% (< 58 mmol/mol). The target is chosen aiming at minimizing hyperglycemia, severe hypoglycemia, hypoglycemic unawareness, and reducing the likelihood of development of long-term complications (B).For patients prone to glycemic variability, glycemic control is best evaluated by a combination of results with self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) (B).Indications for exogenous insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) include acute illness or surgery, pregnancy, glucose toxicity, contraindications to or failure to achieve goals with oral antidiabetic medications, and a need for flexible therapy (B).In T2DM patients, with regards to achieving glycemic goals, insulin is considered alone or in combination with oral agents when HbA1c is ≥ 7.5% (≥ 58 mmol/mol); and is essential for treatment in those with HbA1c ≥ 10% (≥ 86 mmol/mol), when diet, physical activity, and other antihyperglycemic agents have been optimally used (B).The preferred method of insulin initiation in T2DM is to begin by adding a long-acting (basal) insulin or once-daily premixed/co-formulation insulin or twice-daily premixed insulin, alone or in combination with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) or in combination with other oral antidiabetic drugs (OADs) (B).If the desired glucose targets are not met, rapid-acting or short-acting (bolus or prandial) insulin can be added at mealtime to control the expected postprandial raise in glucose. An insulin regimen should be adopted and individualized but should, to the extent possible, closely resemble a natural physiologic state and avoid, to the extent possible, wide fluctuating glucose levels (C).Blood glucose monitoring is an integral part of effective insulin therapy and should not be omitted in the patient’s care plan. Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) values should be used to titrate basal insulin, whereas both FPG and postprandial glucose (PPG) values should be used to titrate mealtime insulin (B).Metformin combined with insulin is associated with decreased weight gain, lower insulin dose, and less hypoglycemia when compared with insulin alone (C).Oral medications should not be abruptly discontinued when starting insulin therapy because of the risk of rebound hyperglycemia (D).Analogue insulin is as effective as human insulin but is a...