The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape.

Mammalian carnivores adhere to two different feeding strategies relative to their body masses. Large carnivores prey on animals that are the same size or larger than themselves, whereas small carnivores prey on smaller vertebrates and invertebrates. The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) falls in between these two categories. Lynx descend from larger forms that were probably large prey specialists, but during the Pleistocene became predators of small prey. The modern Eurasian lynx may be an evolutionary reversal toward specializing in large prey again. We hypothesized that the musculoskeletal anatomy of lynx should show traits for catching large prey. To test our hypothesis, we dissected the forelimb muscles of six Eurasian lynx individuals and compared our findings to results published for other felids. We measured the bones and compared their dimensions to the published material. Our material displayed a well-developed pectoral girdle musculature with some uniquely extensive muscle attachments. The upper arm musculature resembled that of the pantherine felids and probably the extinct sabertooths, and also the muscles responsible for supination and pronation were similar to those in large cats. The muscles controlling the pollex were well-developed. However, skeletal indices were similar to those of small prey predators. Our findings show that lynx possess the topographic pattern of muscle origin and insertion like in large felids. J. Morphol. 277:753-765, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

1. The number of wildlife rabies cases has increased in Europe in recent years. We review the epizootiology of wildlife rabies in Europe, paying special attention to recent changes to the situation of two important vector species: the red fox and the raccoon dog. Red fox Vulpes vulpes has been the main vector of rabies since 1945, but the number and proportion of raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides cases has rapidly increased during the past few years, particularly in north-eastern Europe. 2. The transmission rate (average number of susceptible animals infected by each rabid animal) is critical for rabies spread and is partly determined by population density. Both raccoon dogs and foxes live in pairs. Foxes also live in family groups. Pairs and groups share their territories. Home range size usually correlates negatively with population density. Fox home ranges are 50-1500 ha, those of raccoon dogs 150-700 ha. The threshold value for rabies spread among foxes is estimated to be 0.63 individuals/km 2 . Although fox density in eastern and northern Europe may be lower than this, the pooled density of foxes and raccoon dogs exceeds the threshold density. 3. Animal movements, especially dispersal of young, pose a risk for rabies spread. Although the likelihood of an epizootic is highest where fox and raccoon dog densities are highest, rabies may spread fastest where population densities are lower, because dispersal distances tend to correlate negatively with population density. 4. Oral vaccinations have been more effective in rabies control than culling foxes. Where two vector species exist, vaccination should be conducted twice a year, because most raccoon dogs disperse in autumn but some foxes do not disperse before mid-or late winter. 5. New rabies models, based on two vector species and their interaction, and which take into account the hibernation period of raccoon dogs, are needed for north-eastern Europe.

Eu ro pean ra bies mod els are mainly based on red fox Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758) ecol ogy, be cause the fox has been the main vec tor of the dis ease in Con ti nen tal Eu rope. In north-east Eu rope, like Fin land, the rac coon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides (Gray, 1834) is an im por tant mem ber of the car ni vore com mu nity, and its signif i cance as a vec tor of ra bies has rap idly increased dur ing the last few years (WHO 2003). The rac coon dog was also the most com mon vector/vic tim of the dis ease dur ing an epizootic of sylvatic ra bies in south ern Fin land in the late 1980s (Westerling 1991). Red foxes, badg ers Meles meles (Linnaeus, 1758) and do mes tic cats Felis silvestris catus (Schreber, 1777) were the other spe cies af fected. New ra bies mod els, based on the lo cal car ni vore com mu nity with sev eral vec tor spe cies, are needed for north-east Eu rope.To build such mod els, we re quire data on the home ranges, den si ties, dis persal and hab i tat uti li sa tion pat terns of me dium-sized car ni vores, and inter-spe cific con tact rates. Home range size is a ba sic para met ric; it is gen er ally neg a tively [1] Acta Theriologica 51 (1): 1-13, 2006.

ABSTRACT:The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the main terrestrial wildlife rabies vector in Europe. However, recently the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides)-an invasive species originating from East Asia-has become increasingly important as secondary host, especially in the Baltic States. This imposes problems on neighboring rabies-free countries (such as Finland), where the density of each of the two vector species on its own might be too low to sustain a long-term rabies epizootic, but the community of vectors could be large enough to support a rabies epizootic. In this modeling study, we analyzed rabies epizootics in a community of foxes and raccoon dogs. We focused on the impact of density and behavioral differences (hibernation) between the two vector species. We found that rabies could persist in the community, even if the disease would not spread in the single vector species because its density was too low. Epizootics in the community were stronger than expected for single species, and raccoon dogs were usually the major rabies host. If raccoon dog territory density was high, invasive raccoon dogs could even outcompete native foxes because of apparent competition via the rabies virus. The enhancement in disease risk and disease intensity caused by raccoon dogs suggests that current strategies to control wildlife rabies in Europe should be reviewed, and that oral rabies vaccination also should target raccoon dogs after they emerge from hibernation.