The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape.

Restrictions on roaming Until the past century or so, the movement of wild animals was relatively unrestricted, and their travels contributed substantially to ecological processes. As humans have increasingly altered natural habitats, natural animal movements have been restricted. Tucker et al. examined GPS locations for more than 50 species. In general, animal movements were shorter in areas with high human impact, likely owing to changed behaviors and physical limitations. Besides affecting the species themselves, such changes could have wider effects by limiting the movement of nutrients and altering ecological interactions. Science , this issue p. 466

Summary1. After an absence of almost 100 years, the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx is slowly recovering in Germany along the German-Czech border. Additionally, many reintroduction schemes have been discussed, albeit controversially, for various locations. We present a habitat suitability model for lynx in Germany as a basis for further management and conservation efforts aimed at recolonization and population development. 2. We developed a statistical habitat model using logistic regression to quantify the factors that describe lynx home ranges in a fragmented landscape. As no data were available for lynx distribution in Germany, we used data from the Swiss Jura Mountains for model development and validated the habitat model with telemetry data from the Czech Republic and Slovenia. We derived several variables describing land use and fragmentation, also introducing variables that described the connectivity of forested and non-forested semi-natural areas on a larger scale than the map resolution. 3. We obtained a model with only one significant variable that described the connectivity of forested and non-forested semi-natural areas on a scale of about 80 km 2 . This result is biologically meaningful, reflecting the absence of intensive human land use on the scale of an average female lynx home range. Model testing at a cut-off level of P > 0·5 correctly classified more than 80% of the Czech and Slovenian telemetry location data of resident lynx. Application of the model to Germany showed that the most suitable habitats for lynx were large-forested low mountain ranges and the large forests in east Germany. 4. Our approach illustrates how information on habitat fragmentation on a large scale can be linked with local data to the potential benefit of lynx conservation in central Europe. Spatially explicit models like ours can form the basis for further assessing the population viability of species of conservation concern in suitable patches.

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Conservation biologists often must make management decisions based on little empirical information. In Germany, biologists are concerned that the recovery and reintroduction of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) may fail because the remaining suitable habitat may be insufficient to sustain a viable population. However, no comprehensive study addressing this concern has been made that not only considers distribution of suitable habitat, but also connectivity to other populations. The aims of this study were (1) to quantify the amount and location of potentially suitable lynx habitat in Germany, (2) to estimate the connectivity between patches of suitable habitat, and (3) to evaluate lynx conservation programs. Habitat preferences of lynx were described in a rule‐based model based on the availability of forest cover (defined by patch size) and the spatial structure of the habitat. Rules were implemented in a geographic information system to predict locations of suitable habitat. Optimal connections among patches were modeled using a cost‐path analysis based on habitat‐specific probabilities of lynx crossing patches. Results indicated wide variation in the size of patches of suitable habitat, with 10 areas each sufficiently large to sustain >20 resident lynxes. Overall, a total of 380 lynxes could be sustained by the 10 areas. Uncertainty analyses of model parameters and assumptions revealed little variation in predicted habitat, primarily because results were constrained by the actual distribution of forest habitat. Our analyses suggest that lynx reintroduction programs should emphasize large, connected areas and consider broad‐scale habitat connectivity in the landscape. Our approach also demonstrates how biologically plausible rules can be applied in conservation to identify areas in which success is most likely, even when few empirical data are available.

Summary 1.Historically, the overlap zones of wild equids were small in Africa but extensive for Przewalski's horses Equus ferus przewalskii and Asiatic wild asses Equus hemionus in Asia. Currently, the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area in south-western Mongolia is the only place where sympatric, free-ranging populations of these equids occur. This provides a unique opportunity to test the hypothesis that Przewalski's horses are primarily adapted to mesic steppes and Asiatic wild asses to arid desert steppes and semi-deserts. Understanding the spatial needs and habitat requirements of these little-studied species is a pre-requisite for setting aside and managing protected areas and planning future re-introductions. 2. From 2001 to 2005, we followed nine Przewalski's horses and seven Asiatic wild asses using satellite telemetry and direct observations to assess differences in their resource selection strategies and social organization. 3. Przewalski's horses had non-exclusive home ranges of 152-826 km 2 , selected for the most productive plant communities and formed stable harems groups. 4. Asiatic wild asses had non-exclusive home ranges of 4449-6835 km 2 , showed little preferences for any plant community and seemed to live in fission-fusion groups. 5. Synthesis and applications . Our results provide evidence for different resource selection strategies in two sympatric equid species. Our findings indicate that the Gobi areas provide an edge, rather than an optimal habitat for Przewalski's horses. Consequently, only small and isolated pockets of suitable habitat remain for future re-introductions. Asiatic wild asses, on the other hand, need access to large tracts of land to cope with the unpredictable resource distribution of the Gobi. Managers should be aware that protecting habitat where Asiatic wild asses occur does not necessarily benefit Przewalski's horse restoration, whereas setting aside habitat for the conservation of Przewalski's horses will only locally benefit Asiatic wild asses.

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Long-distance migrations of wildlife have been identified as important biological phenomena, but their conservation remains a major challenge. The Mongolian Gobi is one of the last refuges for the Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) and other threatened migratory mammals. Using historic and current distribution ranges, population genetics, and telemetry data we assessed the connectivity of the wild ass population in the context of natural and anthropogenic landscape features and the existing network of protected areas. In the Mongolian Gobi mean biomass production is highly correlated with human and livestock density and seems to predict wild ass occurrence at the upper level. The current wild ass distribution range largely falls into areas below the 250 gC/m2/year productivity isoline, suggesting that under the present land use more productive areas have become unavailable for wild asses. Population genetics results identified two subpopulations and delineated a genetic boundary between the Dzungarian and Transaltai Gobi for which the most likely explanation are the mountain ranges separating the two areas. Home ranges and locations of 19 radiomarked wild asses support the assumed restricting effects of more productive habitats and mountain ranges and additionally point towards a barrier effect of fences. Furthermore, telemetry data shows that in the Dzungarian and Transaltai Gobi individual wild ass rarely ventured outside of the protected areas, whereas in the southeast Gobi asses only spend a small fraction of their time within the protected area network. Conserving the continuity of the wild ass population will need a landscape level approach, also including multi-use landscapes outside of protected areas, particularly in the southeast Gobi. In the southwest Gobi, allowing for openings in the border fence to China and managing the border area as an ecological corridor would connect three large protected areas together covering over 70,000 km2 of wild ass habitat.