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Declines in habitat and wildlife in semiarid African savannas are widely reported and commonly attributed to agropastoral population growth, livestock impacts, and subsistence cultivation. However, extreme annual and shorter-term variability of rainfall, primary production, vegetation, and populations of grazers make directional trends and causal chains hard to establish in these ecosystems. Here two decades of changes in land cover and wildebeest in the Serengeti-Mara region of East Africa are analyzed in terms of potential drivers (rainfall, human and livestock population growth, socio-economic trends, land tenure, agricultural policies, and markets). The natural experiment research design controls for confounding variables, and our conceptual model and statistical approach integrate natural and social sciences data. The Kenyan part of the ecosystem shows rapid land-cover change and drastic decline for a wide range of wildlife species, but these changes are absent on the Tanzanian side. Temporal climate trends, human population density and growth rates, uptake of small-holder agriculture, and livestock population trends do not differ between the Kenyan and Tanzanian parts of the ecosystem and cannot account for observed changes. Differences in private versus state͞communal land tenure, agricultural policy, and market conditions suggest, and spatial correlations confirm, that the major changes in land cover and dominant grazer species numbers are driven primarily by private landowners responding to market opportunities for mechanized agriculture, less by agropastoral population growth, cattle numbers, or small-holder land use.T he extent to which conservation areas can successfully coexist with local users in developing countries is hotly debated, as are the conditions for environmental, social, and economic sustainability of any such coexistence (refs. 1-5 and 44). In East African savannas, habitat loss and wildlife decline are widely perceived and generally attributed to rapid population growth and the spread of subsistence cultivation. Directional trends and causal chains are hard to establish in semiarid lands, however, because rainfall, primary production, grazer populations, and vegetation formations show major unpredictable fluctuations between seasons and years. The 100,000-km 2 Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem (SME) serves as a natural experiment allowing analysis of the long-term outcomes of different policies for conservation on the one hand and community development on the other. The SME comprises contrasting land-use zones with different tenure arrangements, ranging from state-controlled ''fortress'' conservation areas to private and nonprivate tracts with multiple land uses, some with community-based conservation initiatives, superimposed on a rangeland where ecological, microeconomic, and ethnic continuities make it possible to control for many confounding variables. The SME is bisected by the Kenya͞Tanzania border, allowing comparative analysis of the implications of contrasting economic, political, and...

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Conservation researchers are aware of the need to work with social sciences to manage human-wildlife interactions for better conservation outcomes, but extending natural science research approaches to a social science domain can compromise data quality and validity. As part of the interdisciplinary exchange between the natural and social sciences, this review contrasts structured questionnaire-based surveys with qualitative approaches to collecting social data, and clarifies contexts in which particular qualitative methods might be more effective when investigating human behaviour in conservation research. Although welldesigned questionnaire-based surveys may be useful for population-level generalizations, complementary use of qualitative approaches can significantly enhance understanding of research context, underpinning formulation of representative sampling frames and pertinent research questions, and permitting greater accuracy in interpretation and analysis of data. Good qualitative data are necessary to an accurate understanding of categories, processes, relationships and perceptions, particularly critical in a cross-cultural context, significantly strengthening the internal validity of subsequent structured work. Furthermore, stand-alone qualitative research can also constitute a valuable and valid approach to matters critical to conservation research and to designing successful conservation initiatives, which cannot be effectively researched in any other way.

Measures of socio-economic impacts of conservation interventions have largely been restricted to externally defined indicators focused on income, which do not reflect people's priorities. Using a holistic, locally grounded conceptualization of human well-being instead provides a way to understand the multi-faceted impacts of conservation on aspects of people's lives that they value. Conservationists are engaging with well-being for both pragmatic and ethical reasons, yet current guidance on how to operationalize the concept is limited. We present nine guiding principles based around a well-being framework incorporating material, relational and subjective components, and focused on gaining knowledge needed for decision-making. The principles relate to four key components of an impact evaluation: (i) defining well-being indicators, giving primacy to the perceptions of those most impacted by interventions through qualitative research, and considering subjective well-being, which can affect engagement with conservation; (ii) attributing impacts to interventions through quasi-experimental designs, or alternative methods such as theory-based, case study and participatory approaches, depending on the setting and evidence required; (iii) understanding the processes of change including evidence of causal linkages, and consideration of trajectories of change and institutional processes; and (iv) data collection with methods selected and applied with sensitivity to research context, consideration of heterogeneity of impacts along relevant societal divisions, and conducted by evaluators with local expertise and independence from the intervention.

Conservationists are increasingly engaging with the concept of human well-being to improve the design and evaluation of their interventions. Since the convening of the influential Sarkozy Commission in 2009, development researchers have been refining conceptualizations and frameworks to understand and measure human well-being and are starting to converge on a common understanding of how best to do this. In conservation, the term human well-being is in widespread use, but there is a need for guidance on operationalizing it to measure the impacts of conservation interventions on people. We present a framework for understanding human well-being, which could be particularly useful in conservation. The framework includes 3 conditions; meeting needs, pursuing goals, and experiencing a satisfactory quality of life. We outline some of the complexities involved in evaluating the well-being effects of conservation interventions, with the understanding that well-being varies between people and over time and with the priorities of the evaluator. Key challenges for research into the well-being impacts of conservation interventions include the need to build up a collection of case studies so as to draw out generalizable lessons; harness the potential of modern technology to support well-being research; and contextualize evaluations of conservation impacts on well-being spatially and temporally within the wider landscape of social change. Pathways through the smog of confusion around the term well-being exist, and existing frameworks such as the Well-being in Developing Countries approach can help conservationists negotiate the challenges of operationalizing the concept. Conservationists have the opportunity to benefit from the recent flurry of research in the development field so as to carry out more nuanced and locally relevant evaluations of the effects of their interventions on human well-being.Consideración del Impacto de la Conservación sobre el Bienestar HumanoResumenLos conservacionistas cada vez más se comprometen con el concepto del bienestar humano para mejorar el diseño y la evaluación de sus intervenciones. Desde la convención de la influyente Comisión Sarkozy en 2009, los investigadores del desarrollo han estado refinando las conceptualizaciones y los marcos de trabajo para entender y medir el bienestar humano y están comenzando a convergir con un entendimiento común de cuál es la mejor forma de hacer esto. En la conservación el término bienestar humano tiene un uso amplio, pero existe la necesidad de la orientación en su operación para medir los impactos de las intervenciones de la conservación sobre la gente. Presentamos un marco de trabajo para entender el bienestar humano que podría ser útil particularmente en la conservación. El marco de trabajo incluye tres condiciones: cumplir con las necesidades, perseguir objetivos y experimentar una calidad satisfactoria de vida. Resumimos algunas de las complejidades involucradas en la evaluación de los efectos del bienestar de las intervenciones de la conservación con ...

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