Large quantities of protein are degraded in the fermentative parts of the gut to ammonia, which is absorbed, detoxified to urea, and excreted, leading to formation of nitrogenous compounds such as N2O that are associated with global warming. In ruminants, channel-mediated uptake of NH4 (+) from the rumen predominates. The molecular identity of these channels remains to be clarified. Ruminal cells and epithelia from cows and sheep were investigated using patch clamp, Ussing chamber, microelectrode techniques, and qPCR. In patch clamp experiments, bovine ruminal epithelial cells expressed a conductance for NH4 (+) that could be blocked in a voltage-dependent manner by divalent cations. In the native epithelium, NH4 (+) depolarized the apical potential, acidified the cytosol and induced a rise in short-circuit current (I sc) that persisted after the removal of Na(+), was blocked by verapamil, enhanced by the removal of divalent cations, and was sensitive to certain transient receptor potential (TRP) channel modulators. Menthol or thymol stimulated the I sc in Na(+) or NH4 (+) containing solutions in a dose-dependent manner and modulated transepithelial Ca(2+) fluxes. On the level of messenger RNA (mRNA), ovine and bovine ruminal epithelium expressed TRPA1, TRPV3, TRPV4, TRPM6, and TRPM7, with any expression of TRPV6 marginal. No bands were detected for TRPV1, TRPV5, or TRPM8. Functional and molecular biological data suggest that the transport of NH4 (+), Na(+), and Ca(2+) across the rumen involves TRP channels, with TRPV3 and TRPA1 emerging as prime candidate genes. TRP channels may also contribute to the transport of NH4 (+) across other epithelia.

Absorption of ammonia from the gastrointestinal tract results in problems that range from hepatic encephalopathy in humans to poor nitrogen efficiency of cattle with consequences for the global climate. Previous studies on epithelia and cells from the native ruminal epithelium suggest functional involvement of the bovine homologue of TRPV3 (bTRPV3) in ruminal NH4+ transport. Since the conductance of TRP channels to NH4+ has never been studied, bTRPV3 was overexpressed in HEK-293 cells and investigated using the patch-clamp technique and intracellular calcium imaging. Control cells contained the empty construct. Divalent cations blocked the conductance for monovalent cations in both cell types, with effects higher in cells expressing bTRPV3. In bTRPV3 cells, but not in controls, menthol, thymol, carvacrol, or 2-APB stimulated whole cell currents mediated by Na+, Cs+, NH4+, and K+, with a rise in intracellular Ca2+ observed in response to menthol. While only 25% of control patches showed single-channel events (with a conductance of 40.8 ± 11.9 pS for NH4+ and 25.0 ± 5.8 pS for Na+), 90% of bTRPV3 patches showed much larger conductances of 127.8 ± 4.2 pS for Na+, 240.1 ± 3.6 pS for NH4+, 34.0 ± 1.7 pS for Ca2+, and ~ 36 pS for NMDG+. Open probability, but not conductance, rose with time after patch excision. In conjunction with previous research, we suggest that bTRPV3 channels may play a role in the transport of Na+, K+, Ca2+ and NH4+ across the rumen with possible repercussions for understanding the function of TRPV3 in other epithelia.

Results of recent in vitro experiments suggest that essential oils (EO) may not only influence ruminal fermentation but also modulate the absorption of cations like Na+, Ca2+ and NH4 + across ruminal epithelia of cattle and sheep through direct interaction with epithelial transport proteins, such as those of the transient receptor potential family. The aim of the current study was to examine this hypothesis by testing the effect of a blend of essential oils (BEO) on cation status and feed efficiency in lactating dairy cows. In the experiment, 72 dairy cows in mid-to-end lactation were divided into two groups of 36 animals each and fed the same mixed ration with or without addition of BEO in a 2×2 cross-over design. Feed intake, milk yield and composition, plasma and urine samples were monitored. Feeding BEO elevated milk yield, milk fat and protein yield as well as feed efficiency, whereas urea levels in plasma and milk decreased. In addition, plasma calcium levels increased significantly upon BEO supplementation, supporting the hypothesis that enhanced cation absorption might contribute to the beneficial effects of these EO.

Aim Absorption of ammonia from the gut has consequences that range from encephalitis in hepatic disease to global climate change induced by nitrogenous excretions from livestock. Since patch clamp data show that certain members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family are permeable to NH4+, participation in ammonium efflux was investigated. Methods Digesta, mucosa and muscular samples from stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum and colon of pigs were analysed via colourimetry, qPCR, Western blot, immunohistochemistry and Ussing chambers. Results qPCR data show high duodenal expression of TRPV6. TRPM6 was highest in jejunum and colon, with expression of TRPM7 ubiquitous. TRPM8 and TRPV1 were below detection. TRPV2 was highest in the jejunum but almost non‐detectable in the colon. TRPV4 was ubiquitously expressed by mucosal and muscular layers. TRPV3 mRNA was only found in the mucosa of the caecum and colon, organs in which NH4+ was highest (>7 mmol·L−1). Immunohistochemically, an apical expression of TRPV3 and TRPV4 could be detected in all tissues, with effects of 2‐APB and GSK106790A supporting functional expression. In symmetrical NaCl Ringer, removal of mucosal Ca2+ and Mg2+ increased colonic short circuit current (Isc) and conductance (Gt) by 0.18 ± 0.06 µeq·cm−2·h−1 and 4.70 ± 0.85 mS·cm−2 (P < .05, N/n = 4/17). Application of mucosal NH4Cl led to dose‐dependent and divalent‐sensitive increases in Gt and Isc, with effects highest in the caecum and colon. Conclusion We propose that TRP channels contribute to the intestinal transport of ammonium, with TRPV3 and TRPV4 promising candidate proteins. Pharmacological regulation may be possible.

We aimed to establish a model for prediction of iCa from tCa, using multivariable regressions with diverse blood constituents. Blood was taken from 14 cows at days −2, 0, 2, 4, 7, and 14 relative to parturition. Cows were clinically healthy, and no hypocalcaemia prophylaxis and treatment were applied. Total calcium and further parameters were determined from frozen serum. Ionized calcium, blood gases, and electrolytes were determined from heparin-stabilized blood samples. Linear regression between iCa and tCa was estimated. Precision improved only slightly using a multivariable model. Best precision was achieved when estimating the iCa:tCa ratio from other blood constituents. To identify the reason behind the poorly predictive value of tCa for iCa, the relative changes of iCa and tCa around calving were calibrated to the respective values of day −2 (=100%) for each cow. An increase in the iCa:tCa ratio was observed from 0.43 at day −2 to 0.48 at day 0, followed by a gradual decrease towards 0.43 at day 7. We conclude that routine measurement of iCa should be implemented in the diagnosis of hypocalcaemia. An optimized estimate of iCa from tCa with non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), beta-hydroxybutyric acid, cholesterol, and phosphorous as co-predictors is still poorly satisfying.

BackgroundThe present study aimed at investigating the influence of 90% menthol-containing plant bioactive lipid compounds (PBLC, essential oils) on growth performance, blood haematological and biochemical profile, and nutrient absorption in sheep. Twenty-four growing Suffolk sheep were allotted into three dietary treatments: Control (without PBLC), lower dose of PBLC (PBLC-L; 80 mg/d) and higher dose of PBLC (PBLC-H; 160 mg/d). Sheep in all groups were fed meadow hay ad libitum plus 600 g/d of concentrate pellets for 28 d.ResultsAverage daily gain was not affected by treatment. Feeding of PBLC increased hay and total feed intake per kg body weight (P < 0.05). Counts of total leucocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes were not different among treatments. However, neutrophil count decreased (P < 0.05) in PBLC-H with a similar trend in PBLC-L (P < 0.10). Concentrations of glucose, bilirubin, triglycerides, cholesterol, urea and magnesium in serum were not different among sheep fed different doses of PBLC. However, serum calcium concentration tended to increase in PBLC-H (P < 0.10) and serum concentrations of aspartate & asparagine (P < 0.01) and glutamate & glutamine (P < 0.05) increased linearly with increasing PBLC dose. In ruminal epithelia isolated from the rumen after killing, baseline conductance (Gt; P < 0.05) and short-circuit current (Isc; P < 0.01) increased in both PBLC groups. Ruminal uptakes of glucose and methionine in the presence of Na+ were not affected by the dietary PBLC supplementation. In the absence of Na+, however, glucose and methionine uptakes increased (P < 0.05) in PBLC-H. In the jejunum, Isc tended to increase in PBLC-H (P < 0.10), but baseline Gt was not affected. Intestinal uptakes of glucose and methionine were not influenced by PBLC in the presence or absence of Na+.ConclusionThe results suggest that menthol-rich PBLC increase feed intake, and passive ion and nutrient transport, the latter specifically in the rumen. They also increased serum concentrations of urea precursor amino acids and tended to increase serum calcium concentrations. Future studies will have to show whether some of these findings might be commonly linked to a stimulation of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels in the gastrointestinal tract.

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