Fetal alcohol exposure is the most common known cause of preventable mental retardation, yet we know little about how microglia respond to, or are affected by, alcohol in the developing brain in vivo. Using an acute (single day) model of moderate (3 g/kg) to severe (5 g/kg) alcohol exposure in postnatal day (P) 7 or P8 mice, we found that alcohol-induced neuroapoptosis in the neocortex is closely correlated in space and time with the appearance of activated microglia near dead cells. The timing and molecular pattern of microglial activation varied with the level of cell death. Although microglia rapidly mobilized to contact and engulf late stage apoptotic neurons, apoptotic bodies temporarily accumulated in neocortex, suggesting that in severe cases of alcohol toxicity the neurodegeneration rate exceeds the clearance capacity of endogenous microglia. Nevertheless, most dead cells were cleared and microglia began to deactivate within 1-2 days of the initial insult. Coincident with microglial activation and deactivation, there was a transient increase in expression of pro-inflammatory factors, TNFα and IL-1β, after severe (5 g/kg) but not moderate (3 g/kg) EtOH levels. Alcohol-induced microglial activation and pro-inflammatory factor expression were largely abolished in BAX null mice lacking neuroapoptosis, indicating that microglial activation is primarily triggered by apoptosis rather than the alcohol. Therefore, acute alcohol exposure in the developing neocortex causes transient microglial activation and mobilization, promoting clearance of dead cells and tissue recovery. Moreover, cortical microglia show a remarkable capacity to rapidly deactivate following even severe neurodegenerative insults in the developing brain.

Brain-resident microglia may promote tissue repair following stroke but, like other cells, they are vulnerable to ischemia. Here we identify mechanisms involved in microglial ischemic vulnerability. Using time-lapse imaging of cultured BV2 microglia, we show that simulated ischemia (oxygen-glucose deprivation; OGD) induces BV2 microglial cell death. Removal of extracellular Ca2+ or application of Brilliant Blue G (BBG), a potent P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) antagonist, protected BV2 microglia from death. To validate and extend these in vitro findings, we assessed parenchymal microglia in freshly isolated hippocampal tissue slices from GFP-reporter mice (CX3CR1GFP/+). We confirmed that calcium removal or application of apyrase, an ATP-degrading enzyme, abolished OGD-induced microglial cell death in situ, consistent with involvement of ionotropic purinergic receptors. Indeed, whole cell recordings identified P2X7R–like currents in tissue microglia, and OGD-induced microglial cell death was inhibited by BBG. These pharmacological results were complemented by studies in tissue slices from P2X7R null mice, in which OGD-induced microglia cell death was reduced by nearly half. Together, these results indicate that stroke-like conditions induce calcium-dependent microglial cell death that is mediated in part by P2X7R. This is the first identification of a purinergic receptor regulating microglial survival in living brain tissues. From a therapeutic standpoint, these findings could help direct novel approaches to enhance microglial survival and function following stroke and other neuropathological conditions.

Abstract. Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins are gatekeepers regulating the cellular responses induced by G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated activation of heterotrimeric G proteins. Specifically, RGS proteins determine the magnitude and duration of GPCR signaling by acting as a GTPase-activating protein for Gα subunits, an activity facilitated by their semiconserved RGS domain. The R7 subfamily of RGS proteins is distinguished by two unique domains, DEP/DHEX and GGL, which mediate membrane targeting and stability of these proteins. RGS6, a member of the R7 subfamily, has been shown to specifically modulate Gα i/o protein activity which is critically important in the central nervous system (CNS) for neuronal responses to a wide array of neurotransmitters. As such, RGS6 has been implicated in several CNS pathologies associated with altered neurotransmission, including the following: alcoholism, anxiety/depression, and Parkinson's disease. In addition, unlike other members of the R7 subfamily, RGS6 has been shown to regulate G protein-independent signaling mechanisms which appear to promote both apoptotic and growth-suppressive pathways that are important in its tumor suppressor function in breast and possibly other tissues. Further highlighting the importance of RGS6 as a target in cancer, RGS6 mediates the chemotherapeutic actions of doxorubicin and blocks reticular activating system (Ras)-induced cellular transformation by promoting degradation of DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) to prevent its silencing of pro-apoptotic and tumor suppressor genes. Together, these findings demonstrate the critical role of RGS6 in regulating both G protein-dependent CNS pathology and G protein-independent cancer pathology implicating RGS6 as a novel therapeutic target.

Urinary bladder cancer (UBC) is largely caused by exposure to toxic chemicals including those in cigarette smoke (i.e. BBN). An activating SNP in RGS6 is associated with a pronounced reduction in UBC risk, especially among smokers. However, the mechanism underlying this reduction remains unknown. Here we demonstrate that RGS6 is robustly expressed in human urothelium, where urothelial cell carcinoma originates, and is downregulated in human UBC. Utilizing RGS6−/− mice we interrogated a possible role for RGS6 as a tumor suppressor using the BBN-induced bladder carcinogenesis model that closely recapitulates human disease. As in humans, RGS6 is robustly expressed in mouse urothelium. RGS6 loss dramatically accelerates BBN-induced bladder carcinogenesis, with RGS6−/− mice consistently displaying more advanced pathological lesions than RGS6+/+ mice. Furthermore, BBN treatment promotes urothelial RGS6 mRNA and protein downregulation. RGS6 loss impairs p53 activation and promotes aberrant accumulation of oncogenic protein DNMT1 in urothelium. Tumor suppressor RASSF1A, a DNMT1-regulated gene, is also silenced, likely via methylation of its promoter during BBN exposure. We hypothesize that this BBN-induced RGS6 loss represents a critical hit in UBC as it irrevocably impairs the anti-proliferative actions of the ATM/p53 and RASSF1A pathways. Consistent with these findings, RGS6−/− mice treated with CP-31398, a p53-stablizing agent, and/or 5-Aza, a DNMT1 inhibitor, are protected from BBN-induced tumorigenesis. Together, our data identify RGS6 as a master tumor suppressor modulating two critical signaling pathways that are often dysregulated in UBC; therefore, RGS6 represents a potential novel biomarker for UBC diagnosis/prognosis and an appealing new target in its treatment.

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