Rationale: Parasympathetic regulation of heart rate is mediated by acetylcholine binding to G protein-coupled muscarinic M2 receptors, which activate heterotrimeric G i/o proteins to promote G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K ؉ (GIRK) channel activation. Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins, which function to inactivate G proteins, are indispensable for normal parasympathetic control of the heart. However, it is unclear which of the more than 20 known RGS proteins function to negatively regulate and thereby ensure normal parasympathetic control of the heart.Objective: To examine the specific contribution of RGS6 as an essential regulator of parasympathetic signaling in heart. Methods and Results: We developed RGS6 knockout mice to determine the functional impact of loss of RGS6 on parasympathetic regulation of cardiac automaticity. RGS6 exhibited a uniquely robust expression in the heart, particularly in sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodal regions. Loss of RGS6 provoked dramatically exaggerated bradycardia in response to carbachol in mice and isolated perfused hearts and significantly enhanced the effect of carbachol on inhibition of spontaneous action potential firing in sinoatrial node cells. Consistent with a role of RGS6 in G protein inactivation, RGS6-deficient atrial myocytes exhibited a significant reduction in the time course of acetylcholine-activated potassium current (I KACh ) activation and deactivation, as well as the extent of I KACh desensitization.Conclusions: RGS6 is a previously unrecognized, but essential, regulator of parasympathetic activation in heart, functioning to prevent parasympathetic override and severe bradycardia. These effects likely result from actions of RGS6 as a negative regulator of G protein activation of GIRK channels. (Circ Res. 2010;107:1345-1349.) Key Words: RGS6 Ⅲ SA node Ⅲ Heart rate Ⅲ K ϩ channel Ⅲ G proteins S ince the discovery that acetylcholine (ACh) release from the vagus produces bradycardia, key proteins and mechanisms underlying this action of ACh in heart have been identified. It is now known that ACh binds to muscarinic M2 receptors (M2Rs) that activate heterotrimeric G proteins (G i/o ) in key pacemaking regions of the heart. Activation of these G proteins causes release of G␤␥ subunits that bind to and activate G proteincoupled inwardly rectifying K ϩ (GIRK) channels, which results in a large K ϩ current (acetylcholine-activated potassium current [I KACh ]) and membrane hyperpolarization. 1 RGS proteins function as GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) for G␣ subunits, accelerating their conversion to the inactive GDP-bound form. 2 This results in their reassembly with G␤␥ to form inactive G protein heterotrimers, thereby terminating signaling by both G␣ and G␤␥ proteins. Heterologous expression of various members of the RGS protein family with GIRK channels and M2Rs are required to reconstitute the normal activation and deactivation kinetics of native atrial GIRK channels. 3 In vivo evidence for this key role of RGS proteins in controlli...

Doxorubicin (DXR), among the most widely used cancer chemotherapy agents, promotes cancer cell death via activation of ATM and the resultant up-regulation of tumor suppressor p53. The exact mechanism by which DXR activates ATM is not fully understood. Here we discovered a novel role for Regulator of G protein Signaling 6 (RGS6) in mediating activation of ATM and p53 by DXR. RGS6 was robustly induced by DXR, and genetic loss of RGS6 dramatically impaired DXR-induced activation of ATM and p53, as well as its in vivo apoptotic actions in heart. The ability of RGS6 to promote p53 activation in response to DXR was independent of RGS6 interaction with G proteins but required ATM. RGS6 mediated activation of ATM and p53 by DXR via a ROS-dependent and DNA damage-independent mechanism. This mechanism represents the primary means by which DXR promotes activation of the ATM-p53-apoptosis pathway that underlies its cytotoxic activity. Our findings contradict the canonical theories that DXR activates ATM primarily by promoting DNA damage either directly or indirectly (via ROS) and that RGS6 function is mediated by its interactions with G proteins. These findings reveal a new mechanism for the chemotherapeutic actions of DXR and identify RGS6 as a novel target for cancer chemotherapy.

Regulator of G protein signaling 6 (RGS6) is a member of a family of proteins called RGS proteins, which function as GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) for G␣ subunits. Given the role of RGS6 as a G protein GAP, the link between G protein activation and cancer, and a reduction of cancer risk in humans expressing a RGS6 SNP leading to its increased translation, we hypothesized that RGS6 might function to inhibit growth of cancer cells. Here, we show a marked down-regulation of RGS6 in human mammary ductal epithelial cells that correlates with the progression of their transformation. RGS6 exhibited impressive antiproliferative actions in breast cancer cells, including inhibition of cell growth and colony formation and induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by mechanisms independent of p53. RGS6 activated the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis involving regulation of Bax/Bcl-2, mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP), cytochrome c release, activation of caspases-3 and -9, and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage. RGS6 promoted loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (⌬⌿ m ) and increases in reactive oxygen species (ROS). RGS6-induced caspase activation and loss of ⌬⌿ m was mediated by ROS, suggesting an amplification loop in which ROS provided a feed forward signal to induce MOMP, caspase activation, and cell death. Loss of RGS6 in mouse embryonic fibroblasts dramatically impaired doxorubicin-induced growth suppression and apoptosis. Surprisingly, RGS6-induced apoptosis in both breast cancer cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts does not require its GAP activity toward G proteins. This work demonstrates a novel signaling action of RGS6 in cell death pathways and identifies it as a possible therapeutic target for treatment of breast cancer. Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS)2 proteins comprise a family of proteins, defined by the presence of a semiconserved region called the RGS domain, which negatively regulate heterotrimeric G protein signaling (1-3). These proteins were discovered as essential negative regulators of heterotrimeric G protein signaling by genetic studies in yeast followed by similar studies in Caenorhabditis elegans (4 -6). RGS proteins function as GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) for heterotrimeric G protein subunits (7,8), an activity bestowed by their RGS domain (9) thereby enhancing the shut-off mechanism for G protein signaling. Thirty mammalian genes encode proteins with the hallmark RGS domain or less closely related versions of this domain, and RGS proteins have been classified into subfamilies based upon sequence similarities within the RGS domain that extend to sequences outside of this domain (2, 8). RGS6 is a member of the R7 subfamily of proteins that possess, in addition to their RGS domain, a GGL (G ␥ subunit-like) domain that allows for association with G␤ 5 and stabilization of RGS6 and a Drosophila/EGL10/Pleckstrin homology/DEP helical extension (DEP/DHEX) domain that allows for association with one of two additional proteins, R7BP or R9AP, and is thought to pr...

Alcohol is the most commonly abused drug worldwide, and chronic alcohol consumption is a major etiological factor in the development of multiple pathological sequelae, including alcoholic cardiomyopathy and hepatic cirrhosis. Here, we identify regulator of G protein signaling 6 (RGS6) as a critical regulator of both alcohol-seeking behaviors and the associated cardiac and hepatic morbidities through two mechanistically divergent signaling actions. RGS6−/− mice consume less alcohol when given free access and are less susceptible to alcohol-induced reward and withdrawal. Antagonism of GABAB receptors or dopamine D2 receptors partially reversed the reduction in alcohol consumption in RGS6−/− animals. Strikingly, dopamine transporter inhibition completely restored alcohol seeking in mice lacking RGS6. RGS6 deficiency was associated with alterations in the expression of genes controlling dopamine (DA) homeostasis and a reduction in DA levels in the striatum. Taken together, these data implicate RGS6 as an essential regulator of DA bioavailability. RGS6 deficiency also provided dramatic protection against cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis, hepatic steatosis, and gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction and endotoxemia when mice were forced to consume alcohol. Although RGS proteins canonically function as G-protein regulators, RGS6-dependent, alcohol-mediated toxicity in the heart, liver, and gastrointestinal tract involves the ability of RGS6 to promote reactive oxygen species-dependent apoptosis, an action independent of its G-protein regulatory capacity. We propose that inhibition of RGS6 might represent a viable means to reduce alcohol cravings and withdrawal in human patients, while simultaneously protecting the heart and liver from further damage upon relapse.

Background: GABA B R signaling blocks neuronal firing ensuring appropriate cerebellar cortex output. Results: Loss of RGS6 results in ataxia rescued by a GABA B R antagonist and enhanced GABA B R-GIRK current in neurons. Conclusion: RGS6 is an essential component of GABA signaling in cerebellum and required for motor coordination. Significance: RGS6 dysregulation could result in cerebellar ataxia, and thus, it might represent a novel target for pharmacological intervention.

Clinical use of the widely used chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin is limited by life-threatening cardiotoxicity. The mechanisms underlying Dox-induced cardiomyopathy and heart failure remain unclear, but are thought to involve p53-mediated myocardial cell apoptosis. The tripartite G protein inactivating protein RGS6 has been implicated in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, ATM/p53 activation and apoptosis in Dox-treated cells. Thus, we hypothesized that RGS6, the expression of which is enriched in cardiac tissue, might also be responsible for the pathological effects of Dox treatment in heart. In this study, we show that RGS6 expression is induced strongly by Dox in the ventricles of mice and isolated ventricular myocytes (VCM) via a post-transcriptional mechanism. While Dox-treated wild type (WT) mice manifested severe left ventricular dysfunction, loss of heart and body mass, along with decreased survival five days after Dox administration, mice lacking RGS6 were completely protected against these pathogenic responses. Activation of ATM/p53-apoptosis signaling by Dox in ventricles of WT mice was also absent in their RGS6−/− counterparts. Dox-induced ROS generation was dramatically impaired in both the ventricles and VCM isolated from RGS6−/− mice, and the apoptotic response to Dox in VCM required RGS6-dependent ROS production. These results identify RGS6 as an essential mediator of the pathogenic responses to Dox in heart, and they argue that RGS6 inhibition offers a rational means to circumvent Dox cardiotoxicity in human cancer patients.

Targeting serotonin (5-HT) bioavailability with selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) remains the most widely used treatment for mood disorders. However, their limited efficacy, delayed onset of action, and side effects restrict their clinical utility. Endogenous regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins have been implicated as key inhibitors of 5-HT(1A)Rs, whose activation is believed to underlie the beneficial effects of SSRIs, but the identity of the specific RGS proteins involved remains unknown. We identify RGS6 as the critical negative regulator of 5-HT(1A)R-dependent antidepressant actions. RGS6 is enriched in hippocampal and cortical neurons, 5-HT(1A)R-expressing cells implicated in mood disorders. RGS6(-/-) mice exhibit spontaneous anxiolytic and antidepressant behavior rapidly and completely reversibly by 5-HT(1A)R blockade. Effects of the SSRI fluvoxamine and 5-HT(1A)R agonist 8-OH-DPAT were also potentiated in RGS6(+/-) mice. The phenotype of RGS6(-/-) mice was associated with decreased CREB phosphorylation in the hippocampus and cortex, implicating enhanced Gα(i)-dependent adenylyl cyclase inhibition as a possible causative factor in the behavior observed in RGS6(-/-) animals. Our results demonstrate that by inhibiting serotonergic innervation of the cortical-limbic neuronal circuit, RGS6 exerts powerful anxiogenic and prodepressant actions. These findings indicate that RGS6 inhibition may represent a viable means to treat mood disorders or enhance the efficacy of serotonergic agents.

Breast cancer is a large global health burden and the most frequently diagnosed malignancy in women worldwide. Here, we utilize RGS6 −/− mice to interrogate the role of regulator of G protein signaling 6 (RGS6), localized to the ductal epithelium in mouse and human breast, as a novel tumor suppressor in vivo. RGS6 −/− mice exhibit accelerated 7,12-dimethylbenza[α]anthracene (DMBA)-induced tumor initiation and progression, as well as decreased overall survival. Analysis of carcinogenic aberrations in the mammary glands of DMBA-treated mice revealed a failure of the DNA damage response concurrent with augmented oncogenesis in RGS6 −/− animals. Furthermore, RGS6 suppressed cell growth induced by either human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 or estrogen receptor activation in both MCF-7 breast cancer cells and mammary epithelial cells (MECs). MECs isolated from RGS6 −/− mice also showed a deficit in DMBA-induced ATM/p53 activation, reactive oxygen species generation and apoptosis confirming that RGS6 is required for effective activation of the DNA damage response in these cells, a critical countermeasure against carcinogen-mediated genotoxic stress. The ability of RGS6 to simultaneously enhance DNA-damage-induced apoptotic signaling and suppress oncogenic cell growth likely underlie the accelerated tumorigenesis and cellular transformation observed in DMBA-treated RGS6 −/− mice and isolated MECs, respectively. Unsurprisingly, spontaneous tumor formation was also seen in old female RGS6 −/− but not in wild-type mice. Our finding that RGS6 is downregulated in all human breast cancer subtypes independent of their molecular classification indicates that obtaining a means to restore the growth suppressive and pro-apoptotic actions of RGS6 in breast might be a viable means to treat a large spectrum of breast tumors.