The leaf or monkey frogs of the hylid subfamily Phyllomedusinae are a unique group of charismatic anurans. We present a molecular phylogenetic analysis that includes 45 of the 60 species of phyllomedusines using up to 12 genes and intervening tRNAs. The aims were to gain a better understanding of the phylogenetic position of Phrynomedusa, test the monophyly and explore the relationships among several putative lineages (Hylomantis, the H. buckleyi Group, Phasmahyla, the four species groups of Phyllomedusa, and the species of Phyllomedusa that remain unassigned to any group), and to examine the implications of our phylogeny for the evolution of several characters in phyllomedusines. The analyses resulted in a well-supported phylogenetic hypothesis that provides a historical framework for a discussion of the evolution of characters associated with reproductive biology, gliding behaviour, the physiology of waterproofing, and bioactive peptides. Implications include an earlier origin for eggless capsules than for leaf-folding behaviour during amplexus, two independent origins of gliding, and an earlier origin of reduction in evaporative water loss than uricotelism, which is a result that originally was predicted on the basis of physiology alone. Furthermore, our results support the prediction that bioactive peptides from different peptide families are to be expected in all species of Phyllomedusinae. Hylomantis (as recently redefined) is shown to be paraphyletic and the synonymy of Agalychnis is revised to remedy this problem by including both Hylomantis and Pachymedusa.

. (2013). Systematics of spiny-backed treefrogs (Hylidae: Osteocephalus): an Amazonian puzzle. -Zoologica Scripta, 42, 351-380. Spiny-backed tree frogs of the genus Osteocephalus are conspicuous components of the tropical wet forests of the Amazon and the Guiana Shield. Here, we revise the phylogenetic relationships of Osteocephalus and its sister group Tepuihyla, using up to 6134 bp of DNA sequences of nine mitochondrial and one nuclear gene for 338 specimens from eight countries and 218 localities, representing 89% of the 28 currently recognized nominal species. Our phylogenetic analyses reveal (i) the paraphyly of Osteocephalus with respect to Tepuihyla, (ii) the placement of 'Hyla' warreni as sister to Tepuihyla, (iii) the non-monophyly of several currently recognized species within Osteocephalus and (iv) the presence of low (<1%) and overlapping genetic distances among phenotypically well-characterized nominal species (e.g. O. taurinus and O. oophagus) for the 16S gene fragment used in amphibian DNA barcoding. We propose a new taxonomy, securing the monophyly of Osteocephalus and Tepuihyla by rearranging and redefining the content of both genera and also erect a new genus for the sister group of Osteocephalus. The colouration of newly metamorphosed individuals is proposed as a morphological synapomorphy for Osteocephalus. We recognize and define five monophyletic species groups within Osteocephalus, synonymize three species of Osteocephalus (O. germani, O. phasmatus and O. vilmae) and three species of Tepuihyla (T. celsae, T. galani and T. talbergae) and reallocate three species (Hyla helenae to Osteocephalus, O. exophthalmus to Tepuihyla and O. pearsoni to Dryaderces gen. n.). Furthermore, we flag nine putative new species (an increase to 138% of the current diversity). We conclude that species numbers are largely underestimated, with most hidden diversity centred on widespread and polymorphic nominal species. The evolutionary origin of breeding strategies within Osteocephalus is discussed in the light of this new phylogenetic hypothesis, and a novel type of amplexus (gular amplexus) is described. Corresponding author: Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Institute of Integrated Sciences, Department of Biology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Universit€ atsstr. 1, 56070 Koblenz, Germany. E-mail: khjungfer@aol.com Juli an Faivovich, Divisi on Herpetolog ıa, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales 'Bernardino Rivadavia'-CONICET, Angel Gallardo 470, C1405DJR, Buenos Aires, Argentina and Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biologia Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: julian@macn.gov.ar Jos e M. Padial, Section of Amphibians and Reptiles, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 4400 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213-4080 Systematics of spiny-backed treefrogs K.-H. Jungfer et al. IntroductionTreefrogs of the genus Osteocephalus constitute an important component of the amphibian fauna of the Amazonian and Guianan regions of South America. Their distributions...

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A reassessment of some Amazonian spiny-backed treefrogs (Osteocephalus) either considered to be junior synonyms or not associated yet with Osteocephalus reveals that O. cabrerai (Cochran and Goin, 1970) from lowland Colombia and Peru is distinct from a frog previously used to revalidate the species, that O. festae (Peracca, 1904) is a valid species from the foothills of the Andes in Ecuador, and that Hyla inframaculata Boulenger, 1882, from the lower Amazon in Brazil, is a member of this genus. The oldest available name for O. elkejungingerae (Henle, 1981) from the Andean foothills in Peru is O. mimeticus (Melin, 1941). Another Melin (1941) species, Hyla vilarsi from the Rio Negro watershed in Brazil, is also an Osteocephalus revalidated from the synonymies of several other frogs.

The Central Amazonian treefrog Osteocephalus oophagus breeds in water-filled bromeliad or palm tree leaf axils or in treeholes. The larvae feed on eggs provided by their parents; larvae not provided with eggs die. Survival of the larvae is ensured by the fact that the pair always spawns at the same site. They return at intervals of 5 to 7 days. Pair bonding is the rule in areas with low frog densities. The first eggs develop into tadpoles and later clutches of fertilized eggs serve as food. There is no apparent communication system between larvae and mother. After metamorphosis of the larvae the pair continues to lay eggs into the same leaf axils and these eggs also develop into tadpoles. This behavior is compared to that of other frogs that feed their tadpoles on eggs. It seems to be the least advanced mode of parental care involving tadpole feeding and demonstrates one of the initial steps that has led to more complex parental care behaviors in frogs.

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The South American and West Indian Casque‐headed Treefrogs (Hylidae: Hylinae: Lophyohylini) include 85 species. These are notably diverse in morphology (e.g. disparate levels of cranial hyperossification) and life history (e.g. different reproductive modes, chemical defences), have a wide distribution, and occupy habitats from the tropical rainforests to semiarid scrubland. In this paper, we present a phylogenetic analysis of this hylid tribe based on sequence fragments of up to five mitochondrial (12S, 16S, ND1, COI, Cytb) and six nuclear genes (POMC, RAG‐1, RHOD, SIAH, TNS3, TYR). We included most of its species (> 96%), in addition to a number of new species. Our results indicate: (i) the paraphyly of Trachycephalus with respect to Aparasphenodon venezolanus; (ii) the nonmonophyly of Aparasphenodon, with Argenteohyla siemersi, Corythomantis galeata and Nyctimantis rugiceps nested within it, and Ap. venezolanus nested within Trachycephalus; (iii) the polyphyly of Corythomantis; (iv) the nonmonophyly of the recognized species groups of Phyllodytes; and (v) a pervasive low support for the deep relationships among the major clades of Lophyohylini, including C. greeningi and the monotypic genera Itapotihyla and Phytotriades. To remedy the nonmonophyly of Aparasphenodon, Corythomantis, and Trachycephalus, we redefined Nyctimantis to include Aparasphenodon (with the exception of Ap. venezolanus, which we transferred to Trachycephalus), Argenteohyla, and C. galeata. Additionally, our results indicate the need for taxonomic work in the following clades: (i) Trachycephalus dibernardoi and Tr. imitatrix; (ii) Tr. atlas, Tr. mambaiensis and Tr. nigromaculatus; and (iii) Phyllodytes. On the basis of our phylogenetic results, we analyzed the evolution of skull hyperossification and reproductive biology, with emphasis on the multiple independent origins of phytotelm breeding, in the context of Anura. We also analyzed the inter‐related aspects of chemical defences, venom delivery, phragmotic behaviour, co‐ossification, and prevention of evaporative water loss.

A phylogenetic analysis of the Neotropical dart-poison frogs, genus Phyllobates, was performed based on mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences. Members of Phyllobates from South and Central America were found to form each an evolutionary lineage. Among the South American lineage, species with uniform dorsal coloration as adults form a derived monophyletic clade.