Early childhood attachment and bonding and the intergenerational transmission of trauma are two key areas to address to understand the connection between parental trauma and the parent-child relationship. The purpose of the current study was to explore the relationship between trauma and past parental attachment behaviors of 41 expectant mothers and the subsequent development of attachment and bonding with their unborn child. Results of the current study suggest that trauma history, in general, does not negatively impact expectant mothers' current prenatal attachment with their unborn child. However, interpersonal trauma history does appear to have negative effects on prenatal attachment. These results point to the importance of understanding the role of interpersonal trauma exposure on prenatal attachment.

Recent studies have repeatedly associated posttraumatic symptoms with women's experience of pregnancy loss. Using a nationally representative sample of American women (N = 2,894) from the National Survey of Fertility Barriers, the current study examines long-term psychological outcomes and reactions to pregnancy loss and infertility among mothers and involuntary childless women. In general, childless women who have experienced pregnancy loss or failure to conceive report the lowest life satisfaction and highest levels of depression despite a considerable period of time (seven years) since the loss or first year without a conception. However, women with the dual experience of pregnancy loss and involuntary childlessness report the most fertility-related distress. Results of the current study suggest that the “non-event” of involuntary childlessness may serve as an additional stressor in the traumatic experience of pregnancy loss.

Research traditionally has focused on the development of symptoms in those who experienced trauma directly but overlooked the impact of trauma on the families of victims. In recent years, researchers and clinicians have begun to examine how individual exposure to traumatic events affects the spouses/partners, children, and professional helpers of trauma survivors. The current study examines qualitative interview data from 17 individuals, analyzed using a retroductive methodology to identify how intimate relationships are affected when there is a history of trauma exposure. The following primary themes were identified: increased communication, decreased communication, increased cohesion/connection, decreased cohesion/connection, increased understanding, decreased understanding, sexual intimacy problems, symptoms of relationship distress, support from partner, and relationship resources. Areas for future research and clinical implications are identified. Trauma and Intimate Relationships 2Traumatic events have received substantial clinical and empirical focus in the past 25 years.Although traumatic experiences have been survived by people for centuries, scientific knowledge of trauma has increased in recent history. Much of the literature on trauma and posttraumatic stress focuses on the individual effects of trauma on the primary victim-the person who directly experienced the traumatic event (Herman, 1997; van der Kolk, McFarlane, & Weisaeth, 1996). Currently in the traumatic stress field, the definition of trauma almost exclusively encompasses the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) criteria for PTSD; thus, trauma has become synonymous with PTSD. However, some in the field have challenged this definition, suggesting an alternative model beyond the DSM-IV-TR description of trauma (Brewin, Carlson, Creamer, & Shalev, 2005). Shalev (2005) indicated that a stressful event becomes traumatic when it is emotionally and personally meaningful, cognitively incongruous, and when it affects human bonds and networks, suggesting that "trauma should not be seen as affecting individuals but as affecting humans in their context."The literature that describes a couple and family systems approach to trauma primarily involves secondary traumatic stress theory (Figley, 1983;, adult attachment theory (Johnson, 2002), and the relational approach to trauma treatment (Sheinberg & Fraenkel, 2001).Several terms have been used to describe these secondary effects, like compassion fatigue (Figley, 1995(Figley, , 2002, vicarious traumatization (McCann & Pearlman, 1990;Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995), burnout (Figley, 1998), trauma transmission (Baranowsky, Young, JohnsonDouglas, Williams-Keeler, & McCarrey, 1998), and witnessing (Weingarten, 2003(Weingarten, , 2004. Trauma and Intimate Relationships 3The theory of secondary traumatic stress contends that being in close contact with and emotionally connected to a traumatized person becomes a chronic stressor, and family members often experience symptoms of traumatization (Arzi, Solomon, & Dekel, 2000;Fi...

Research traditionally has focused on the development of symptoms in those who experienced trauma directly but overlooked the impact of trauma on the families of victims. In recent years, researchers and clinicians have begun to examine how individual exposure to traumatic events affects the spouses/partners, children, and professional helpers of trauma survivors. The current study reports data from a larger mixed-methodology study that includes qualitative interview data from 17 individuals, coded to identify the mechanisms that may affect the couple's interpersonal functioning when there is a history of trauma exposure in one or both partners. The following primary themes were identified: role in the relationship, boundary issues, intimacy problems, triggers, and coping mechanisms. Areas for future research and clinical implications also are identified.

Using a qualitative methodology, we investigated the possible connection between pregnant females' past sexual trauma experiences and current experiences of pregnancy. Semi-structured interviews were conducted during the third trimester of pregnancy with ten expectant mothers with self-reported histories of sexual trauma. Participants were asked to describe their past sexual trauma experience, current maternity experience, and any relationship or connection between these life experiences. Four dominant categories emerged: (1) Negative consequences of sexual trauma, (2) Becoming a survivor, (3) Pregnancy: A new beginning beyond sexual trauma, and (4) the Integration of sexual trauma and motherhood. In addition, subsequent themes and sub-themes that emerged as a part of these categories are reported and discussed. Participants' descriptions offer clinical insight into both the maladaptive and adaptive dynamics that bi-directionally interplay between women's dual life experiences of sexual trauma and pregnancy.