Remote sensing data are increasingly being used in digital archaeology for the potential non-invasive detection of archaeological remains. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the capability of standalone (LiDAR and aerial photogrammetry) and integration/fusion remote sensing approaches in improving the prospecting and interpretation of archaeological remains in Cahokia’s Grand Plaza. Cahokia Mounds is an ancient area; it was the largest settlement of the Mississippian culture located in southwestern Illinois, USA. There are a limited number of studies combining LiDAR and aerial photogrammetry to extract archaeological features. This article, therefore, combines LiDAR with photogrammetric data to create new datasets and investigate whether the new data can enhance the detection of archaeological/ demolished structures in comparison to the standalone approaches. The investigations are implemented based on the hillshade, gradient, and sky view factor visual analysis techniques, which have various merits in revealing topographic features. The outcomes of this research illustrate that combining data derived from different sources can not only confirm the detection of remains but can also reveal more remains than standalone approaches. This study demonstrates that the use of combination remote sensing approaches provides archaeologists with another powerful tool for site analysis.
Human-induced climate change significantly alters the spatiotemporal characteristics of climate zones, which drives agricultural land use and ecosystem change. However, the detectability of shifting climate zones and the rate and time of the changes has yet to be adequately addressed at the regional-to-local scale. We mapped and analyzed changes to temperature and precipitation across Kenya during the past four decades, and linked those changes to shifts in the geographic distribution and arrangement of climate zones at regional scales. We observed an approximate 1 °C increase in average annual temperature over the 40-year period. A total of 76,346 km2 shifted from cooler to hotter zones, while 1298 km2 shifted from hotter to cooler zones. Tropical climate regions expanded from 91 to 93%, with over 13,000 km2 shifting from alpine and temperate to tropical regions. Average annual precipitation demonstrated little or no trend, but substantial spatial changes were observed. A total of 136,129 km2 shifted from wetter to drier zones, while 23,317 km2 shifted from drier to wetter zones. Arid climate regions expanded from 72 to 81%, a roughly 50,000 km2 shift from humid and semi-humid-to-semi-arid to arid regions. Overall, there was a 207,557 km2 shift in temperature and precipitation zones. As the climate zones predominately shift toward hotter and drier conditions, climatic diversity will decline, and in turn, ecosystem diversity and the ecosystem goods and services to society will decline. The changes also have broader global implications in terms of their contribution to global drylands as well as influencing earth system cycles. Overall, such information can better inform the Kenyan National Climate Change Response Strategy and be used to reach the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
Productive global agriculture is under a convergence of pressures, and particularly climate change and population growth. The impact is especially stark in East Africa where crop production is mostly rain-fed and population growth rates are among the highest in the world. Our objective for this study was to understand how climate change and population growth have impacted the size of agropastoral areas across Kenya over 40 years. Climate-suitable areas for all primary crops decreased 28% over the study period. Climate-suitable areas for primary crops increased 3% in highly productive counties, decreased 25% in moderately productive counties, and decreased 62% in low productive counties. Climate-suitable areas over the study period decreased 13% for ranching areas, 21% for dairying areas, 24% for mixed crop and ranching areas, and 28% for mixed crop and dairying areas, while climate-suitable areas for pastoralism increased 12%. Population across Kenya more than tripled over the study period, while population relative to climate-suitable areas for crops increased nearly fourfold, and population relative to climate-suitable areas for pastoralism nearly tripled. Population relative to available climate-suitable areas for crops more than doubled in highly productive counties, increased more than four-fold in moderately productive counties, and was nearly 15 times higher in low productive counties. Examining the cumulative effects of climate change and population growth on agricultural sectors across Kenya can help to develop policies and strategies to reach the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
Immersive educational experiences are a form of experiential learning that typically involve intensive instruction, reflection, and exposure to complex social issues, often taking participants outside of their “comfort zones” to critically examine their own preconceived notions and biases. This chapter argues that well-designed, intercultural immersion experiences capitalize on key developmental areas in emerging young adults who are navigating diverse perspectives, exploring new identities, and searching for deeper meaning and responsibility. Emerging adults are primed to take advantage of such intercultural immersion opportunities, making even short-term experiences a viable option for intense personal reflection and growth. In addition to promoting healthy developmental pathways in young people, such experiences also benefit the civic well-being of communities by encouraging youth to become agents of social change.
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