CEU is a useful clinical tool for the diagnosis of retinal detachment and vitreous membrane in dogs and cats.

Vitreous degeneration is common in dogs and may be associated with cataract formation. Vitreous degeneration may be identified using B-mode ultrasonography and appears as multiple, small, motile, point-like echoes within the vitreous cavity. In humans, vitreous degeneration has also been observed in normal aging eyes but the incidence of vitreous degeneration in dogs without cataract has not previously been documented. The purpose of this study was to describe the ultrasonographic appearance of vitreous degeneration and to investigate its incidence in a population of dogs without cataract or other apparent eye disease. The eyes of 62 dogs were evaluated as part of a prospective study. All dogs underwent ophthalmological and ultrasonographic examinations and vitreal changes were graded on ultrasonography using a predetermined grading scheme. Vitreous degeneration was found in 20% (23/114) of the eyes on ultrasonographic examination but in only 8% (9/114) of eyes on direct ophthalmoscopy. Sensitivity and specificity of ophthalmoscopy using ultrasonography as a gold standard were respectively, 39% and 100%. Vitreal syneresis and asteroid hyalosis could be distinguished according to their ultrasonographic characteristics. The probability of having vitreous degeneration increased with the age of the dog (odds ratio = 6.7 for dogs of 7 + years compared with 0-6 years) and also increased in females compared with males (odds ratio = 3.6). Vitreous degeneration, especially mild vitreal syneresis, is not uncommon in normal dogs; it was shown to be an age-related condition and its significance should not be overinterpreted on ocular ultrasonography.

In the adult dog, kidney length has been reported as 2.98 ± 0.44 times the length of L2 on ventrodorsal views and 2.79 ± 0.46 times the length of L2 on lateral radiographs. Our aim was to test the hypothesis that the suggested maximum normal left kidney size is too high, and to evaluate the effect of breed type, gender, weight and age of the dog on kidney size. Abdominal radiographs of 200 dogs with no evidence of concurrent disease that might have an effect on renal size were included in the study. The mean ratio of kidney length to the second lumbar vertebra length was similar to previous reports. For the right lateral view it measured 2.98 ± 0.60 and for the ventrodorsal view 3.02 ± 0.66. Significant differences of this ratio between skull type were present, especially between brachycephalic and dolichocephalic dogs. On the right lateral view brachycephalic dogs had the highest median LK/L2 ratio of 3.1 (3.20 ± 0.40), whereas for dolichocephalic dogs it was 2.8 (2.82 ± 0.50), and for mesaticephalic dogs it was 2.97 (3.01 ± 0.6). A ratio >3.5 was found only in mesaticephalic dogs on the ventrodorsal view. There was a significant difference in the LK/L2 ratio between small (≤10kg) and large breed dogs (>30kg) where small dogs had a significantly higher LK/L2 ratio. There was no statistically significant relation between this ratio and age or gender. The previously reported ratios for kidney size seem valid, but because skull type has an impact on the LK/L2 ratio, a single normal ratio should not be used for all dogs.

Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are two diagnostic imaging procedures that have become commonplace in first-opinion practices. Both of these modalities are continually undergoing technological improvement and each has its advantages for different applications. This article provides an update on recent advances and compares the use of CT and MRI in different areas of the body.In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in the availability of computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Previously, these modalities were only available in universities or large referral institutions. nowadays, first opinion practices are acquiring CT scanners and low field MRIs, and mobile imaging units make these advanced imaging modalities readily accessible to the veterinary profession.Since their development, CT and MRI have undergone continuous technological improvement and a large number of scientific papers describing features of diseases in animals have been published, contributing greatly to the advancements in clinical veterinary medicine.CT and MRI scanning will remain complex and expensive procedures. Fundamental differences exist between both technologies. Veterinarians are often faced with a choice between CT or MRI for the optimal diagnostic workup of their patients. A clear understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of both modalities will allow them to select the optimal imaging modality.The aim of this article is to review the key differences between CT and MRI, discuss their most important indications in veterinary patients and present a summary of the most recent advances in these two cross-sectional imaging modalities. Fig 1: The effect of windowing and levelling on CT image interpretation. As too much data are obtained on a CT scan the radiologist selects the window level (WL) centred on the density of the tissue of interest and a window width (WW) wide enough to include the densities of the tissues of interest. For example, window settings to observe the lung are different from those of the soft tissues and bones. The numerical values are given in Hounsfield units Brain window WL =35 WW = 150 Lung window WL =500 WW = 1500 Bone window WL = 500 WW = 1500 Soft tissue window WL = 50 WW = 500 Tobias Schwarz qualified from the

Results suggested that electrophysiological studies may be sensitive for the detection of PNST and helpful in the imaging diagnosis. Epaxial electromyographic abnormalities appeared to be predictive for intervertebral or vertebral canal invasion by PNSTs in dogs.