Data were collected on the point and lifetime prevalences, 1-year incidence, and comorbidity of depression with other disorders (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [3rd ed., rev.]) in a randomly selected sample (n = 1,710) of high school students at point of entry and at 1-year follow-up (n = 1,508). The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children was used to collect diagnostic information; 9.6% met criteria for a current disorder, more than 33% had experienced a disorder over their lifetimes, and 31.7% of the latter had experienced a second disorder. High relapse rates were found for all disorders, especially for unipolar depression (18.4%) and substance use (15.0%). Female subjects had significantly higher rates at all age levels for unipolar depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and adjustment disorders; male subjects had higher rates of disruptive behavior disorders.

IMPORTANCEThe public health implications of e-cigarettes depend, in part, on whether e-cigarette use affects the risk of cigarette smoking.OBJECTIVE To perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies that assessed initial use of e-cigarettes and subsequent cigarette smoking.

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Operating characteristics of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) were examined by using data from 4 samples of students in Grades 9-12. The CES-D was found to have good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Dimensionality was comparable to that found for adults. Structure varied little by order of assessment (Trial 1 or Trial 2), age, or gender. Salience of items, in terms of rank order of mean item scores, was remarkably similar to that reported for college and general adult samples. With the standard cutoff score of 16 or more, half of the high school students were classified as depressed. There was a pronounced gender effect, with proportionately more women reporting depressive symptoms across the 4 samples. Although it appears that the CES-D scale may be appropriate for use with adolescents, the issues of stability of scores over time, appropriate cutoff scores, and usefulness in detecting cases of clinical depression remain unresolved.In spite of the increased attention being devoted to depression in childhood and adolescence (Cantwell & Carlson, 1983), research still lags far behind that dealing with adults. The paucity of data is a function of both conceptual (Kaslow & Rehm. 1984;Reynolds, 1984b) and methodological (Rehm, 1976;Kratochwill, Morris, & Campbell, 1985;Reynolds, 1984a) factors. Our understanding of the epidemiology of childhood and adolescent depression has been impeded in part by the dearth of well-established techniques for case-ascertainment in child and adolescent populations. To date, no generally accepted technique or techniques exist for measuring psychopathology in youth. As a consequence, there is great diversity in measurement strategies across studies, accompanied by an attenuation in comparability of results. Although there have been recent attempts to achieve greater consensus regarding assessment of psychopathology in children and adolescents (see American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1987), these attempts have not yet had a significant impact on the results of substantive research. Much of this effort has focused on the development of assessment techniques specific to children and adolescents. Considerably less effort has been devoted to assessing the efficacy of using assessment procedures originally developed for adults with younger segments of the population.This report presents initial findings on the operating charac-

Data collected from 294 young adults, ages 19 to 25, and both a same- and an opposite-gender best friend or mate across 3 annual assessments were analyzed to examine the similarity to and influence of the peer on the young adult's substance use. The authors found similarity across time between both peers and the young adult in cigarette use, alcohol use, binge drinking, and, in most cases, marijuana use. In prospective analyses, peer use predicted young adult cigarette use, binge drinking, and problem use by the young adults. Results were generally consistent across gender and for both same- and opposite-gender peers. Findings emphasize peer influence contribution to young adult substance use and suggest the design of interventions that involve both young adults and their peers.

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This 1-year prospective study of 173 families with two or more children examines the influence of parent, sibling, and peer modeling (i.e., use) and attitudes on adolescent use of alcohol. Independent questionnaire data were obtained from the adolescent, father, mother, and sibling(s). Structural equation modeling methods were employed to examine these relationships. Parent attitude toward youth alcohol use and parent modeling of alcohol use were strongly related to change in adolescent alcohol use, suggesting that parents can influence the future use of alcohol by their children. Peer and sibling modeling and peer attitudes also influenced adolescent alcohol use.

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