Background/Aims During the development of liver fibrosis, mediators are produced that stimulate cells in the liver to differentiate into myofibroblasts and to produce collagen. Recent studies demonstrated that the transcription factor, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), is critical for upregulation of profibrotic mediators, such as platelet-derived growth factor-A (PDGF-A), PDGF-B, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) in the liver during the development of fibrosis. What remains unknown is the cell type-specific regulation of these genes by HIF-1α in liver cell types. Accordingly, the hypothesis was tested that HIF-1α is activated in hypoxic hepatocytes and regulates production of profibrotic mediators by these cells. Methods In this study, hepatocytes were isolated from the livers of control and HIF-1α or HIF-1β-Deficient mice and exposed to hypoxia. Results Exposure of primary mouse hepatocytes to 1% oxygen stimulated nuclear accumulation of HIF-1α and upregulated PAI-1, vascular endothelial cell growth factor, and the vasoactive peptides adrenomedullin-1 (ADM-1) and ADM-2. In contrast, levels of PDGF-A and PDGF-B mRNAs were unaffected in these cells by hypoxia. Exposure of HIF-1α-Deficient hepatocytes to 1% oxygen only partially prevented upregulation of these genes, suggesting that other hypoxia-regulated transcription factors, such as HIF-2α, may also regulate these genes. In support of this, HIF-2α was activated in hypoxic hepatocytes, and exposure of HIF-1β-Deficient hepatocytes to 1% oxygen completely prevented upregulation PAI-1, VEGF, and ADM-1, suggesting that HIF-2α may also contribute to upregulation of these genes in hypoxic hepatocytes. Conclusions Collectively, our results suggest that HIFs may be important regulators of profibrotic and vasoactive mediators by hypoxic hepatocytes.

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Drugs account for about 20% of gynecomastia cases in men. As a number of factors can alter the estrogen:androgen ratio, several pathophysiologic mechanisms are associated with drugs causing this disorder. Antiandrogens, protease inhibitors, and nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors are the most common drug causes of gynecomastia, whereas first-generation antipsychotics, spironolactone, verapamil, and cimetidine are less common causes. Other drugs have been reported rarely as causes. Treatment may involve switching to an alternative agent or may require surgery or irradiation if the causative agent cannot be discontinued. We reviewed the literature on drug-induced gynecomastia and provided another perspective by reviewing data from the United States Food and Drug Administration's Adverse Event Reporting System. Epidemiologic studies are needed to provide a more accurate description of the frequency of drug-induced gynecomastia.

Pregnancy is characterized by physiological adjustments in the maternal compartment. In this investigation, the influence of pregnancy on maternal liver was examined in CD-1 mice. Dramatic changes were observed in the size of the maternal liver during pregnancy. Livers doubled in weight from the nonpregnant state to day 18 of pregnancy. The pregnancy-induced hepatomegaly was a physiological event of liver growth confirmed by DNA content increase and detection of hepatocyte hyperplasia and hypertrophy. Growth of the liver was initiated following implantation and peaked at parturition. The expression and/or activities of key genes known to regulate liver regeneration, a phenomenon of liver growth compensatory to liver mass loss, were investigated. The results showed that pregnancy-dependent liver growth was associated with IL-6, TNF1α, NFkB, c-Jun, and IL-1β, but independent of HGF, FGF1, TNFR1, CAR, and PXR. Furthermore, maternal liver growth was associated with the activation of hepatic STAT3, β-catenin, and EGFR, but pregnancy did not activate hepatic c-Met. The findings suggest that the molecular mechanisms regulating pregnancy-induced liver growth and injury-induced liver regeneration exhibit overlapping features but are not identical. In summary, the liver of the mouse adapts to the demands of pregnancy via a dramatic growth response driven by hepatocyte proliferation and size increase. Remarkably, our findings provide a novel mouse model to investigate the regulation of hepatocyte proliferation, cell size increase, and liver growth.

Background Maternal metabolic demands change dramatically during the course of gestation and must be coordinated with the needs of the developing placenta and fetus. The liver is critically involved in metabolism and other important functions. However, maternal hepatic adjustments to pregnancy are poorly understood. Aim The aim of the study was to evaluate the influences of pregnancy on the maternal liver growth and gene expression profile. Methods Holtzman Sprague-Dawley rats were mated and sacrificed at various stages of gestation and postpartum. The maternal Livers were analyzed in gravimetric response, DNA content by PicoGreen dsDNA quantitation reagent, hepatocyte ploidy by flow cytometry, and hepatocyte proliferation by ki-67 immunostaining. Gene expression profiling of nonpregnant and gestation d18.5 maternal hepatic tissue was analyzed using a DNA microarray approach and partially verified by northern blot or quantitative real-time PCR analysis. Results During pregnancy, the liver exhibited approximately an 80% increase in size; proportional to the increase in body weight of the pregnant animals. The pregnancy-induced hepatomegaly was a physiological event of liver growth manifested by increases in maternal hepatic DNA content and hepatocyte proliferation. Pregnancy did not affect hepatocyte polyploidization. Pegnancy-dependent changes in hepatic expression were noted for a number of genes, including those associated with cell proliferation, cytokine signaling, liver regeneration, and metabolism. Conclusions The metabolic demands of pregnancy cause marked adjustments in maternal liver physiology. Central to these adjustments are an expansion in hepatic capacity and changes in hepatic gene expression. Our findings provide insights into pregnancy-dependent hepatic adaptations.

Inositol hexakisphosphate (IP6) and inositol both regulate insulin secretion, but their combined use in the management of diabetes deserves investigation. The combined effects of IP6 and inositol supplementation were investigated in streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic rats. The following groups of rats were studied for 8 weeks: non-diabetic control, non-diabetic high-fat diet control, diabetic untreated, diabetic rats treated with the combination of IP6 and inositol (650 mg/kg bw) and diabetic rats treated with glibenclamide (10 mg/kg bw). High-fat diet and streptozotocin were used to induce type 2 diabetes mellitus in Sprague-Dawley rats. Body weight, blood glucose, glycated haemoglobin, insulin, serum leptin, HOMA-insulin resistance scores, intestinal amylase activity, serum and faecal lipids and food and fluid consumption were measured. Treatment with the combination significantly reduced blood glucose (306 ± 53 mg/dl) and insulin resistance score (1.93 ± 0.45) compared with diabetic controls (522 ± 24 mg/dl and 5.1 ± 0.69 respectively). Serum leptin (2.8 ± 0.6 ng/dl) and faecal triglycerides (108 ± 8 mg/dl) were significantly increased in rats treated with the combination compared with the diabetic control (1.8 ± 0.06 ng/dl and 86 ± 4 mg/dl). Serum triglyceride (47 ± 5.1 mg/dl), total cholesterol (98 ± 3.2 mg/dl) and food intake (26 ± 0.3 g) were significantly reduced by 45%, 25% and 25%, respectively, in rats treated with the combination compared with the diabetic control. Inositol and IP6 combined supplementation may be effective in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus and related metabolic disorders by regulating some aspects of lipid and carbohydrate metabolism.

Molecular mechanisms underlying the health disparity of prostate cancer (PCa) have not been fully determined. In this study, we applied bioinformatic approach to identify and validate dysregulated genes associated with tumor aggressiveness in African American (AA) compared to Caucasian American (CA) men with PCa. We retrieved and analyzed microarray data from 619 PCa patients, 412 AA and 207 CA, and we validated these genes in tumor tissues and cell lines by Real-Time PCR, Western blot, immunocytochemistry (ICC) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) analyses. We identified 362 differentially expressed genes in AA men and involved in regulating signaling pathways associated with tumor aggressiveness. In PCa tissues and cells, NKX3.1, APPL2, TPD52, LTC4S, ALDH1A3 and AMD1 transcripts were significantly upregulated (p < 0.05) compared to normal cells. IHC confirmed the overexpression of TPD52 (p = 0.0098) and LTC4S (p < 0.0005) in AA compared to CA men. ICC and Western blot analyses additionally corroborated this observation in PCa cells. These findings suggest that dysregulation of transcripts in PCa may drive the disparity of PCa outcomes and provide new insights into development of new therapeutic agents against aggressive tumors. More studies are warranted to investigate the clinical significance of these dysregulated genes in promoting the oncogenic pathways in AA men.

Maternal physiology changes dramatically during the course of gestation and lactation to meet the needs of the developing fetus and newborn. In the present study, we examined the influence of pregnancy and lactation on growth and erythroid gene expression patterns of the maternal spleen. Holtzman Sprague-Dawley rats and CD-1 mice were killed at various stages of gestation and post partum. We observed pregnancy dependent increases in spleen weight and spleen DNA content in both the rat and mouse. In the rat, spleen size was greatest at the end of pregnancy and regressed post partum. In contrast, mouse spleen size peaked by gestational Day 13 and regressed to its non-pregnant weight before parturition. Pregnancy dependent changes in the size of the spleen were primarily due to an increase in red pulp. Maternal spleen expression of erythroid-associated genes (erythroid Krüppel-like factor, erythroid 5-aminolevulinate synthase-2, beta-major globin) was influenced by pregnancy and lactation. A pregnancy dependent increase in erythroid progenitors was also observed. In summary, the demands of pregnancy and lactation cause marked adaptations in the maternal spleen. The maternal spleen increases in size and exhibits an expansion of the erythroid lineage.