Over time, the definition of prevention has expanded so that its meaning in the context of health services is now unclear. As risk factors are increasingly considered to be the equivalent of ''diseases'' for purposes of intervention, the concept of prevention has lost all practical meaning. This paper reviews the inconsistencies in its utility, and suggests principles that it should follow in the future: a population orientation with explicit consideration of attributable risk, the setting of priorities based on reduction in illness and avoidance of adverse effects, and the imperative to reduce inequities in health.

Primary care in western Europe is delivered by general practitioners (GPs) but their role within the overall health system is poorly understood. The aim of this article is to present an overview of the characteristics of general practice in the context of health systems and to describe their variability and interrelationships. Data were obtained from two main sources: publications of official organizations and EC research projects. The characteristics of general practice are described and analysed with regard to three features: mode of payment, gatekeeper function and practice organization and workload. Despite their focus on general practice as the cornerstone of the health system, western European countries differ considerably in the major characteristics of primary care. There is variability in the ratio of GPs to population and in the extent to which patients relate to individual physicians. Although all countries have universal health insurance, the mode of payment of GPs differs. In some countries, the gatekeeper function of general practice is more highly developed and the use of specialist services varies accordingly. Practice characteristics such as workload, length of consultation, ordering of tests and reappointments also vary with differences in payment and gatekeeping arrangements. In particular, fee-for-service was associated with weaker physician-patient relationships, reduced attractiveness of general practice, more home visiting and longer consultations. Strong gatekeeping arrangements are not incompatible with high public satisfaction and are associated with lower visit rates. However, strong gatekeeping is not characteristic of fee-for-service arrangements. These findings suggest a need for more concerted research that could inform policy decisions concerning primary care in the USA as well as in Europe.

Health disparities, also known as health inequities, are systematic and potentially remediable differences in one or more aspects of health across population groups defined socially, economically, demographically, or geographically (88). This topic has been the subject of research stretching back at least decades. Reports and studies have delved into how inequities develop in different societies and, with particular regard to health services, in access to and financing of health systems. In this review, we consider empirical studies from the United States and elsewhere, and we focus on how one aspect of health systems, clinical care, contributes to maintaining systematic differences in health across population groups characterized by social disadvantage. We consider inequities in clinical care and the policies that influence them. We develop a framework for considering the structural and behavioral components of clinical care and review the existing literature for evidence that is likely to be generalizable across health systems over time. Starting with the assumption that health services, as one aspect of social services, ought to enhance equity in health care, we conclude with a discussion of threats to that role and what might be done about them.

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RESUMO: Este artigo analisa estratégias desenvolvidas por Brasil e Espanha para integrar Atenção Primária à Saúde e Especializada. Entre as iniciativas comuns, observa-se: papel de filtro exercido pelo médico de família, territorialização dos serviços de saúde, especialistas consultores/matriciamento e adoção de protocolos clínicos consensuados. No Brasil, ressalta-se a recente implantação de sistemas descentralizados de regulação, e, na Espanha, a já consolidada informatização da história clínica em APS. A criação de história clínica única é um desafio para ambos os países. Iniciativas que promovam maior relação interpessoal foram consideradas mais exitosas para integrar profissionais dos dois níveis. PALAVRAS-CHAVE:Atenção primária à saúde; integração de sistemas; serviços de saúde ABSTRACT: This paper examines strategies developed by Brazil and Spain for integrating Primary Health Care with Specialized Care. Common measures included: the filter role played by family doctors, territorialization of health services, specialist consultants/matrix support and consensual clinical protocols. Of particular note, in Brazil, is the recent introduction of decentralized regulation systems and, in Spain, the long established computerization of PHC clinical records. Both countries face the challenge of creating unified clinical records. Measures to foster more interpersonal relationship were considered the most successful strategies for integrating health workers from the two levels

Declaración de conflicto de intereses:Los autores declaran no tener ningún conflicto de interés en lo que respecta a este texto. Declaración respecto a aspectos éticos: Este es un trabajo de investigación sobre datos secundarios de acceso público, que no implica experimentación en ninguna forma. No hay, pues, ningún problema ético al respecto. *E-mail: jgervasc@meditex.es ResumenLos servicios sanitarios cuentan con niveles de atención, lo que optimiza los resultados. Los niveles tienen "filtros" que aumentan la prevalencia de enfermedad entre los pacientes que llegan a niveles sucesivamente altos. En este trabajo se justifica la existencia del filtro del médico general con respecto al especialista y al hospital por el aumento de la prevalencia de enfermedad en la población derivada de primaria a hospitalaria. Se utilizan ejemplos empíricos respecto al dolor abdominal, dolor precordial y hemorragia rectal. En este último ejemplo, la prevalencia del cáncer de recto y de sigma pasa del 0,1% en la población al 2% en la consulta del mé-dico general (por efecto del filtro personal y familiar) y al 36% en la consulta del especialista (por efecto del filtro del médico general). La selección aumenta el valor predictivo positivo de las pruebas diagnósticas que solicita el especialista, y evita el contacto innecesario con los especialistas a muchos pacientes con hemorragia rectal por causa benigna, que permanecen en su nivel (de la familia, o del médico general).

Medical activities have more positive than negative outcomes. Because this balance, medicine has a great social recognition. But with new technology and more aggressive diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, there is a decreasing gap in between benefits and harms. Risk increases because more interventions, and because placing patients in more technology environments. As a consecuence, patient safety decreases. Quantity becomes as important as quality, and the place of care is crucial for patient safety. Medical activities should be of <>, performed in the low level of care possible. Then, quaternary prevention (to avoid unnecessary use and risk of medical interventions) should be a continuous parallel clinical activity. I consider four examples of needed quaternary prevention, with Spanish data: 1) cardiovascular prevention (where there is an inverse use of resources, as patients who need more receive less); 2) use of new antidepressants (which has provoke an artificial epidemic of <

The NHS Plan signalled the creation of GPs with special interests (GPwSIs) in the UK. The role of a GPwSI involves the acquisition of knowledge and skills that enable GPs to dedicate a portion of their time to performing the role of consultants to their colleagues within the ambit of general practice, and with respect to specific health problems encountered. The objectives behind the introduction of GPwSIs are to improve the patient's access to specialist care, to cut waiting-list times, and to save on referral costs, (and as a consequence to increase the prestige of the GPs involved). However, the reality may not meet these expectations. Before accepting the proposition for universal implementation of GPwSIs empirical evidence is required to demonstrate that overall health is improved (of patients as well as the population); patients, especially patients of doctors working alone or in small groups (specifically in rural areas) are not disadvantaged; referral is improved and made more appropriate to the requirements of patients and their health problems; real prestige is generated, not only among GPs and students, but also among patients; biological views typical of the specialist are not promoted; and a brake is not applied to other alternatives in, or the reorganisation of, primary care.