The development of shoot-borne roots, or adventitious roots, is indispensable for mass propagation of elite genotypes. It is a complex genetic trait with a high phenotypic plasticity due to multiple endogenous and environmental regulatory factors. We demonstrate here that a subtle balance of activator and repressor AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR (ARF) transcripts controls adventitious root initiation. Moreover, microRNA activity appears to be required for fine-tuning of this process. Thus, ARF17, a target of miR160, is a negative regulator, and ARF6 and ARF8, targets of miR167, are positive regulators of adventitious rooting. The three ARFs display overlapping expression domains, interact genetically, and regulate each other's expression at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels by modulating miR160 and miR167 availability. This complex regulatory network includes an unexpected feedback regulation of microRNA homeostasis by direct and nondirect target transcription factors. These results provide evidence of microRNA control of phenotypic variability and are a significant step forward in understanding the molecular mechanisms regulating adventitious rooting.

Adventitious rooting (AR) is a multifactorial response leading to new roots at the base of stem cuttings, and the establishment of a complete and autonomous plant. AR has two main phases: (a) induction, with a requirement for higher auxin concentration; (b) formation, inhibited by high auxin and in which anatomical changes take place. The first stages of this process in severed organs necessarily include wounding and water stress responses which may trigger hormonal changes that contribute to reprogram target cells that are competent to respond to rooting stimuli. At severance, the roles of jasmonate and abscisic acid are critical for wound response and perhaps sink strength establishment, although their negative roles on the cell cycle may inhibit root induction. Strigolactones may also inhibit AR. A reduced concentration of cytokinins in cuttings results from the separation of the root system, whose tips are a relevant source of these root induction inhibitors. The combined increased accumulation of basipetally transported auxins from the shoot apex at the cutting base is often sufficient for AR in easy-to-root species. The role of peroxidases and phenolic compounds in auxin catabolism may be critical at these early stages right after wounding. The events leading to AR strongly depend on mother plant nutritional status, both in terms of minerals and carbohydrates, as well as on sink establishment at cutting bases. Auxins play a central role in AR. Auxin transporters control auxin canalization to target cells. There, auxins act primarily through selective proteolysis and cell wall loosening, via their receptor proteins TIR1 (transport inhibitor response 1) and ABP1 (Auxin-Binding Protein 1). A complex microRNA circuitry is involved in the control of auxin response factors essential for gene expression in AR. After root establishment, new hormonal controls take place, with auxins being required at lower concentrations for root meristem maintenance and cytokinins needed for root tissue differentiation.

We characterized the adventitious rooting response of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. to various concentrations of calcium, nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, manganese, zinc, boron and copper. The parameters analyzed were percent rooting, root number, root length and mean rooting time. Root number and root length were significantly affected by mineral nutrition, whereas mean rooting time and rooting percentage seemed to be closely related to auxin availability. Root number was affected by calcium, nitrogen source and zinc, whereas root length was influenced by concentrations of phosphorus, iron and manganese, and by nitrogen source. Based on these results, we evaluated various combinations of several concentrations of these minerals in each rooting phase. Cuttings that were rooted in an optimized mineral nutrient medium and acclimatized to ex-vitro conditions for two months showed significantly higher survival after transplanting and drought stress than cuttings rooted in basal medium and treated in the same way.

Comparisons between related species with different rooting capacities can provide insights into the mechanisms controlling adventitious root development. The availability of carbohydrates is often considered exclusively as an energetic requirement to drive root development; the major regulatory role in the process is often attributed to phytohormones, particularly auxin. The roles of light quantity (irradiance) and carbohydrate supply available to young aseptic donor-plants on the adventitious rooting response of Eucalyptus globulus (rooting recalcitrant) and Eucalyptus saligna (easy-to-root) were examined. The effects of the type of carbohydrate supply (sucrose or glucose) on the rooting response of cuttings was also evaluated. Light intensity supplied to mother-plants (30 or 60 lmol m À2 s À1 ) had limited influence on the rooting response of both species, whereas dark periods were detrimental, particularly for E. globulus. In E. globulus, rooting was promoted by the absence of sucrose in donor-plant media. Presence of sucrose in donor plant medium promoted root number but did not affect rooting percentage of E. saligna. A positive effect of glucose on cutting rhizogenesis was found if this hexose was supplied during the root induction phase, followed by sucrose in the root formation step, especially for E. globulus. The same effect was not seen with fructose. The beneficial effect of glucose in the induction phase on root number was also evident under suboptimal auxin concentrations.

SummaryAuxin is a major regulator of adventitious rooting and, to better understand its role, we identified suppressor mutants of superroot2-1. This provides new resources for the discovery of genetic players involved in auxin signalling or auxin crosstalk with other hormones.

Abstract:The genus Mikania ranks high in the list of best-selling natural products in the world. Its main distribution is in South America, but some species are found in Asia, North America and Africa. It is used for treating fever, rheumatism, colds and respiratory diseases, as well as snake bites and scorpion stings, due to its broad spectrum of action. There are approximately 430 species of this genus and only 12% have been studied, highlighting their chemical and pharmacological diversity. The main chemical groups are: coumarins and derivatives, sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpenes lactones, diterpenes, phytosterols/terpenoids and flavonoids. This review aims to supply useful references for scientists interested in natural products and the search for new compounds, from over the 300 already described for the genus.

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