[1] The Humboldt Current System is the most productive of the eastern boundary currents. In the northern part, the Peru Current System (PCS) is located between 5°S and 20°S. Along the Peruvian coast, an equatorward wind forces a strong coastal upwelling. A high resolution model is designed to investigate the mean circulation, the seasonal cycle, and the mesoscale dynamics for the PCS. The model is able to reproduce the equatorward Peru Coastal Current (PCC), the Peru Chile Under-Current (PCUC) which follows the shelf break towards the pole, and the Peru-Chile Counter-Current (PCCC) which flows directly towards the south and veers to the west around 15°S. While the upper part of the PCUC is close to the surface and might even outcrop as a counter current, the bottom part follows f H isolines. The PCCC appears to be directly forced by the cyclonic wind stress curl. The model is able to produce the upwelling front, the cold water tongue which extends toward the equator and the equatorial front as described in the literature. Model seasonal changes in SST and SSH are compared to measurements. For the central PCS, model EKE is 10% to 30% lower than the observations. The model eddy diameters follow a strong equatorward increase. The injection length scales, derived from the energy spectra, strongly correlate to the Rossby radius of deformation, confirming the predominant role of baroclinic instability. At 3°S, the model solution appears to switch from a turbulent oceanic regime to an equatorial regime dominated by zonal currents.Citation: Penven, P., V. Echevin, J. Pasapera, F. Colas, and J. Tam (2005), Average circulation, seasonal cycle, and mesoscale dynamics of the Peru Current System: A modeling approach,

Abstract. Lake Titicaca is a crucial water resource in the central part of the Andean mountain range, and it is one of the lakes most affected by climate warming. Since surface evaporation explains most of the lake's water losses, reliable estimates are paramount to the prediction of global warming impacts on Lake Titicaca and to the region's water resource planning and adaptation to climate change. Evaporation estimates were done in the past at monthly time steps and using the four methods as follows: water balance, heat balance, and the mass transfer and Penman's equations. The obtained annual evaporation values showed significant dispersion. This study used new, daily frequency hydro-meteorological measurements. Evaporation losses were calculated following the mentioned methods using both daily records and their monthly averages to assess the impact of higher temporal resolution data in the evaporation estimates. Changes in the lake heat storage needed for the heat balance method were estimated based on the morning water surface temperature, because convection during nights results in a well-mixed top layer every morning over a constant temperature depth. We found that the most reliable method for determining the annual lake evaporation was the heat balance approach, although the Penman equation allows for an easier implementation based on generally available meteorological parameters. The mean annual lake evaporation was found to be 1700 mm year−1. This value is considered an upper limit of the annual evaporation, since the main study period was abnormally warm. The obtained upper limit lowers by 200 mm year−1, the highest evaporation estimation obtained previously, thus reducing the uncertainty in the actual value. Regarding the evaporation estimates using daily and monthly averages, these resulted in minor differences for all methodologies.

Abstract. Lake Titicaca is an important water ecosystem of South America. Due to uncertainties in estimating the evaporation losses from the lake, surface water storage calculations are uncertain. In this paper, we try to improve evaporation loss estimations by comparing different methods to calculate daily and monthly evaporation from Lake Titicaca. 15These were: water balance, heat balance, mass transfer method, and the Penman equation. The evaporation was computed at daily time step and compared with estimated evaporation using mean monthly meteorological observations. We found that the most reliable method of determining the annual lake evaporation is using the heat balance approach. To estimate the monthly lake evaporation using heat balance, the heat storage changes must be known in advance. Since convection from the surface layer is intense during nights resulting in a well-mixed top layer every morning, it is possible to determine the 20 change of heat storage from the measured morning surface temperature. The mean annual lake evaporation was found to be 1700 mm. Monthly evaporation computed using daily data and monthly means resulted in minor differences.

The vegetation water status is a crucial variable for modelling of drought impact, vegetation productivity and water fluxes. Methods for spatial estimation of this variable still need to be improved. The integration of remotely sensed data of land surface temperature (LST) and water vegetation indices based on near-infrared (NIR) and short-wave infrared (SWIR) reflectance for estimation of vegetation water content and water available for evapotranspiration require more analysis. This study contains a detailed method and measurements of LST, NIR and SWIR reflectance of soybean, corn and barley taken in field campaigns in central Argentine Pampas and laboratory with a ST PRO Raytek (8–14 µm) and a spectrometer SVC HR-1024i (0.35 and 2.5 µm). Also, relative water content of leaves was measured in laboratory during the dehydration process. This method and dataset could be also used for researching other wavelengths between 0.35 and 2.5 µm as indicator of water vegetation status (e.g. solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthesis). Procedures useful to measure field spectra of vegetation are presented. Not only the traditional method to measure leaves spectra in laboratory, but also in field were applied. The method allows the integration of spectra and thermal data as a proxy of vegetation water status.

<p>Tropical glaciers are among the fastest retreating in the world. The two largest tropical glaciers are located in South Perú. Quelcaya icecap (-13.92°, -70.80°, 5650 masl) sits at the Eastern wetter fringe of the Andean Plateau, near the Amazon basin, from which it receives precipitation. Nevado Coropuna (-15.54°, -72.64°, 6377 masl), sits on a volcanic building at the arid, Western part of the Andean Plateau, under the influence of the Humboldt ocean current.</p><p>MOTICE is an ongoing project that will measure the retreat of Nevado Coropuna and Quelcaya since the 1950’s. Glacier reach, mass balance and thickness will be measured using remote sensing, GPS, UAV and GPR, whereas deglaciated areas will be studied in terms of their geomorphology. Alongside climate data, the glaciological and geomorphological information will feed a glacier model that will try to replicate the retreat that has happened in the last 70 years. Once tuned, the model will be forced with different future RPC scenarios in order to know the future retreat of the two aforementioned icecaps. In this contribution we present preliminary results on the 1950’s-present deglaciation landsystems and discuss their potential feed into glacier modelling.</p><p>In the case of Nevado Coropuna, results show a distinctive landform creation pattern between the North and South face, which we expect be linked to a differential retreat pattern. Northern proglacial areas predominantly feature a push-moraine/fluting landsystem that speaks of fast glacier motion and dynamic retreat, which is confirmed by the highest retreat rates in the whole icefield. Conversely, southern glacial landsystem show the typical setting of a stagnant glacier front, with debris covered glaciers, rock glaciers and a very limited frontal retreat. Recent rock glacier formation in high mountain environments has already been described in the Himalayas and might be a beneficial process for the storage of frozen water resources, as rock glaciers are more resilient to melt than glaciers.</p><p>Deglaciation landforms in Quelcaya evidence a quick retreat pattern, which left frontal and lateral moraines, some of them currently enclosing proglacial lakes in the main valleys and series of push moraines in less enclosed slopes. Recent deglaciation in the SW and NE tips of the icefield has reached the plateau on which it sits. Deglaciated areas on the plateau only show lightly scoured bedrock surfaces, hence evidencing cold-based, motionless ice.</p><p>Overall, Quelcaya is retreating at a faster pace than Nevado Coropuna, mainly because its lower elevation, which is expected to be fully placed within the ablation zone before 2050. It is expected that the described glacial geomorphology will help our glacier model in two ways: 1. tune some parameters in it, such as ice velocity and 2. provide temporal constraints (mainly from moraines) to the deglaciation process between the 1950’s and the present time.   </p>