The potential fungicidal action of the natural extracts, carnosic acid (obtained from rosemary) and propolis (from honeybees’ panels) against the highly prevalent yeast Candida albicans, used herein as an archetype of pathogenic fungi, was tested. The separate addition of carnosic acid and propolis on exponential cultures of the standard SC5314 C. albicans strain caused a moderate degree of cell death at relatively high concentrations. However, the combination of both extracts, especially in a 1:4 ratio, induced a potent synergistic pattern, leading to a drastic reduction in cell survival even at much lower concentrations. The result of a mathematical analysis by isobologram was consistent with synergistic action of the combined extracts rather than a merely additive effect. In turn, the capacity of SC5314 cells to form in vitro biofilms was also impaired by the simultaneous presence of both agents, supporting the potential application of carnosic acid and propolis mixtures in the prevention and treatment of clinical infections as an alternative to antibiotics and other antifungal agents endowed with reduced toxic side effects.

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Many species of pathogenic fungi deploy the unfolded protein response (UPR) to expand the folding capacity of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in proportion to the demand for virulence-related proteins that traffic through the secretory pathway. Although Ca2+ plays a pivotal role in ER function, the mechanism by which transcriptional upregulation of the protein folding machinery is coordinated with Ca2+ homeostasis is incompletely understood. In this study, we investigated the link between the UPR and genes encoding P-type Ca2+-ATPases in the human-pathogenic mold Aspergillus fumigatus. We demonstrate that acute ER stress increases transcription of the srcA gene, encoding a member of the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) family, as well as that of pmrA, encoding a secretory pathway Ca2+-ATPase (SPCA) in the Golgi membrane. Loss of the UPR transcription factor HacA prevented the induction of srcA and pmrA transcription during ER stress, defining these ER/Golgi Ca2+ pumps as novel downstream targets of this pathway. While deletion of srcA alone caused no major deficiencies, a ΔsrcA/ΔpmrA mutant displayed a severe polarity defect, was hypersensitive to ER stress, and showed attenuated virulence. In addition, cell wall analyses revealed a striking reduction in mannose levels in the absence of both Ca2+ pumps. The ΔhacA mutant was hypersensitive to agents that block calcineurin-dependent signaling, consistent with a functional coupling between the UPR and Ca2+ homeostasis. Together, these findings demonstrate that the UPR integrates the need for increased levels of chaperone and folding enzymes with an influx of Ca2+ into the secretory pathway to support fungal growth, stress adaptation, and pathogenicity. IMPORTANCE The UPR is an intracellular signal transduction pathway that maintains homeostasis of the ER. The pathway is also tightly linked to the expression of virulence-related traits in diverse species of human-pathogenic and plant-pathogenic fungal species, including the predominant mold pathogen infecting humans, Aspergillus fumigatus. Despite advances in the understanding of UPR signaling, the linkages and networks that are governed by this pathway are not well defined. In this study, we revealed that the UPR is a major driving force for stimulating Ca2+ influx at the ER and Golgi membranes and that the coupling between the UPR and Ca2+ import is important for virulence, cell wall biosynthesis, and resistance to antifungal compounds that inhibit Ca2+ signaling.

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The putative candicidal activity of resveratrol is currently a matter of controversy. Here, the antifungal activity as well as the antioxidant response of resveratrol against Candida albicans, have been tested in a set of strains with a well-established genetic background At the doses usually employed in antifungal tests (10-40 μg/ml), resveratrol has no effect on the exponential growth of the C. albicans CAI.4 strain, a tenfold increase (400 μg/ml) was required in order to record a certain degree of cell killing, which was negligible in comparison with the strong antifungal effect caused by the addition of amphotericin B (5 μg/ml). An identical pattern was recorded in the prototrophic strains of C. albicans SC5314 and RM-100, whereas the oxidative sensitive trehalose-deficient mutant (tps1/tps1 strain) was totally refractory to the presence of resveratrol. In turn, the serum-induced yeast-to-hypha transition remained unaffected upon addition of different concentrations of resveratrol. Determination of endogenous trehalose and catalase activity, two antioxidant markers in C. albicans; revealed no significant changes in their basal contents induced by resveratrol. Collectively, our results seem to dismiss a main antifungal role as well as the therapeutic application of resveratrol against the infections caused by C. albicans.

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