Word frequency is an important predictor of word naming and lexical decision times. It is, however, confounded with contextual diversity, the number of contexts in which a word has been seen. Using a normative, corpus-based, measure of contextual diversity, word frequency effects were eliminated by contextual diversity (but not vice versa) across three naming and three lexical decision datasets, using any of three corpora to derive the frequency and contextual diversity values. This result is incompatible with existing models of visual word recognition, which attribute frequency effects directly to frequency, and is particularly problematic for accounts in which frequency effects reflect learning. It is argued that the result reflects the importance of likely need in memory, and that the continuity with memory suggests using principles from memory research to inform theorizing about reading. Contextual Diversity vs. Word Frequency 3 Contextual Diversity Not Word Frequency Determines Word Naming and Lexical Decision TimesWhat determines how quickly a word can be read? Empirically, in both word naming and lexical decision, frequency of occurrence is among the strongest known factors: Frequent words are read more quickly than infrequent words (Forster & Chambers, 1973; Frederiksen & Kroll, 1976;Balota, Cortese, Sergent-Marshall, Spieler, & Yap, 2004). Thus it appears that repeated experience with or exposure to a particular word makes it more readable or identifiable. A key assumption of theoretical explanations of the word frequency (WF) effect is that the effect is due to the number of experiences with a word; each (and every) exposure has a long-term influence on accessibility.In learning-based accounts of reading, such as connectionist models (e.g
People who show good performance in dynamic complex problem-solving tasks can also make errors. Theories of human error fail to fully explain when and why good performers err. Some theories would predict that these errors are to some extent the consequence of the difficulties that people have in adapting to new and unexpected environmental conditions. However, such theories cannot explain why some new conditions lead to error, while others do not. There are also some theories that defend the notion that good performers are more cognitively flexible and better able to adapt to new environmental conditions. However, the fact is that they sometimes make errors when they face those new conditions. This paper describes one experiment and a research methodology designed to test the hypothesis that when people use a problem-solving strategy, their performance is only affected by those conditions which are relevant to that particular strategy. This hypothesis is derived from theories that explain human performance based on the interaction between cognitive mechanisms and environment.
Whole blood is the preferred product for resuscitation of severe traumatic hemorrhage. It contains all the elements of blood that are necessary for oxygen delivery and hemostasis, in nearly physiologic ratios and concentrations. Group O whole blood that contains low titers of anti-A and anti-B antibodies (low titer group O whole blood) can be safely transfused as a universal blood product to patients of unknown blood group, facilitating rapid treatment of exsanguinating patients. Whole blood can be stored under refrigeration for up to 35 days, during which it retains acceptable hemostatic function, though supplementation with specific blood components, coagulation factors or other adjuncts may be necessary in some patients. Fresh whole blood can be collected from pre-screened donors in a walking blood bank to provide effective resuscitation when fully tested stored whole blood or blood components are unavailable and the need for transfusion is urgent. Available clinical data suggest that whole blood is at least equivalent if not superior to component therapy in the resuscitation of life-threatening hemorrhage. Low titer group O whole blood can be considered the standard of care in resuscitation of major hemorrhage.
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