Few studies have addressed associations between traffic-related air pollution and respiratory disease in young children. The present authors assessed the development of asthmatic/allergic symptoms and respiratory infections during the first 4 yrs of life in a birth cohort study (n5,4,000).Outdoor concentrations of traffic-related air pollutants (nitrogen dioxide PM 2.5 , particles with a 50% cut-off aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 mm and soot) were assigned to birthplace home addresses with a land-use regression model. They were linked by logistic regression to questionnaire data on doctor-diagnosed asthma, bronchitis, influenza and eczema and to selfreported wheeze, dry night-time cough, ear/nose/throat infections and skin rash. Total and specific immunoglobulin (Ig)E to common allergens were measured in a subgroup (n5713).Adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) per interquartile pollution range were elevated for wheeze (1.2 (1.0-1.4) for soot), doctor-diagnosed asthma (1.3 (1.0-1.7)), ear/nose/throat infections (1.2 (1.0-1.3)) and flu/serious colds (1.2 (1.0-1.4)). No consistent associations were observed for other end-points. Positive associations between air pollution and specific sensitisation to common food allergens (1.6 (1.2-2.2) for soot), but not total IgE, were found in the subgroup with IgE measurements.Traffic-related pollution was associated with respiratory infections and some measures of asthma and allergy during the first 4 yrs of life.

Despite the important contribution of traffic sources to urban air quality, relatively few studies have evaluated the effects of traffic-related air pollution on health, such as its influence on the development of asthma and other childhood respiratory diseases. We examined the relationship between traffic-related air pollution and the development of asthmatic/allergic symptoms and respiratory infections in a birth cohort (n approximately 4,000) study in The Netherlands. A validated model was used to assign outdoor concentrations of traffic-related air pollutants (nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter less than 2.5 micro m in aerodynamic diameter, and "soot") at the home of each subject of the cohort. Questionnaire-derived data on wheezing, dry nighttime cough, ear, nose, and throat infections, skin rash, and physician-diagnosed asthma, bronchitis, influenza, and eczema at 2 years of age were analyzed in relation to air pollutants. Adjusted odds ratios for wheezing, physician-diagnosed asthma, ear/nose/throat infections, and flu/serious colds indicated positive associations with air pollutants, some of which reached borderline statistical significance. No associations were observed for the other health outcomes analyzed. Sensitivity analyses generally supported these results and suggested somewhat stronger associations with traffic, for asthma that was diagnosed before 1 year of age. These findings are subject to confirmation at older ages, when asthma can be more readily diagnosed.

Summary There is a growing consensus that the long term solution to the asthma epidemic lies in prevention and not in treatment of established disease. Atopic asthma arises from gene x environment interactions which most commonly occur during a relatively narrow window period in pre- and postnatal development. These interactions are incompletely understood, and hence the holy grail of primary prevention remains an elusive goal. We contend that a lack of understanding of the role of atopy in early life in the development of persistent asthma in children exists amongst primary care physicians, paediatricians and specialists. In this review we argue that early identification of high risk children is feasible based on currently available technology, and worthwhile in relation to potential benefits to the children so identified. Knowledge of an asthmatic child's atopic status in early life has practical clinical and prognostic implications, as well as forming the basis for future preventative strategies.

Long-term effects of prematurity were airway obstruction and a lower CO diffusing capacity compared with control subjects, although mean lung function parameters were within the normal range. Ex-preterms had a lower exercise level, which could not be explained by impaired lung function or smoking habits, but might be due to impaired physical fitness.

The Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy (PIAMA) birth cohort study was initiated in 1996. Children born to allergic mothers were enrolled in a double-blind placebo-controlled trial for evaluating the use of mite-impermeable mattress and pillow covers. Children born to allergic and non-allergic mothers were enrolled in a 'natural history' study to assess the role of environmental and dietary risk factors for the development of allergic disease in childhood. Recruitment started by distributing a validated screening questionnaire among >10,000 pregnant women during their first visit to a prenatal health clinic. Allergic mothers-to-be were invited to participate in the intervention study. Allergic, and a random sample of non-allergic, mothers-to-be were invited to participate in the 'natural history' arm of the study. In the intervention study, homes were visited before birth, 3 months after birth, and 12 months after birth for the collection of dust samples from floors and mattresses. In addition, the homes of about one-third of the children in the 'natural history' part of the study were visited for dust collection when the children were 3 months of age. The intervention study started with 855 participants and the 'natural history' study with 3,291 participants. Follow-up at 3 years of age has now been completed with satisfactory compliance (>90%). A medical investigation and home visit at 4years of age are nearing completion. Preliminary results show that mite-allergen levels were lower than found in previous Dutch studies, and that the intervention measure had a significant effect on mite-allergen levels, without important clinical benefits up to age 2 years old. The allergic families lived in homes with fewer 'triggers' such as pets, smoking and carpets than the non-allergic families, regardless of the intervention. The ongoing PIAMA cohort study will probably reveal useful information concerning effects of allergen load and reduction in the setting of a relatively low mite-allergen exposure, as well as other variables on the development of allergic manifestions and asthma.

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Projections of the effects of climate change on allergic asthma: the contribution of aerobiology. Allergy 2010; 65: 1073-1081.There is unequivocal evidence that the climate is changing and at an increasing rate. Global average temperature has increased by more than 0.7°C over the past 100 years, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projects that the average global surface air temperatures in the years 2090-2099 are likely to be between 1.8 and 4.0°C warmer than those in 1980-1999, depending on which climate scenarios are input into the models (1). In addition to global warming, some regions, including northern Europe, are projected to experience increased rainfall while others, including the Mediterranean, are expected to experience substantial droughts. Extreme weather events, such as heat waves, heavy precipitation and thunderstorms, are also predicted to increase over the next few decades. These changes are as a result of increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and greenhouse gases in which anthropogenic activities play a key role.All the above climate-related factors can impact on the physiology and distribution of living organisms, such as plants and fungi. In this context, there is evidence that climate change affects pollen and spore production by plants and fungi as well as different phenological events. At the same time, current changes in climate are affecting the different aerobiological processes (emission, dispersion and/or transport, and deposition) of aeroallergens. AbstractClimate change is unequivocal and represents a possible threat for patients affected by allergic conditions. It has already had an impact on living organisms, including plants and fungi with current scenarios projecting further effects by the end of the century. Over the last three decades, studies have shown changes in production, dispersion and allergen content of pollen and spores, which may be region-and species-specific. In addition, these changes may have been influenced by urban air pollutants interacting directly with pollen. Data suggest an increasing effect of aeroallergens on allergic patients over this period, which may also imply a greater likelihood of the development of an allergic respiratory disease in sensitized subjects and exacerbation of symptomatic patients. There are a number of limitations that make predictions uncertain, and further and specifically designed studies are needed to clarify current effects and future scenarios. We recommend: More stress on pollen/ spore exposure in the diagnosis and treatment guidelines of respiratory and allergic diseases; collection of aerobiological data in a structured way at the European level; creation, promotion and support of multidisciplinary research teams in this area; lobbying the European Union and other funders to finance this research.