Polarized cell migration results from the transduction of extracellular cues promoting the activation of Rho GTPases with the intervention of multidomain proteins, including guanine exchange factors. P-Rex1 and P-Rex2 are Rac GEFs connecting G␤␥ and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling to Rac activation. Their complex architecture suggests their regulation by protein-protein interactions. Novel mechanisms of activation of Rho GTPases are associated with mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), a serine/ threonine kinase known as a central regulator of cell growth and proliferation. Recently, two independent multiprotein complexes containing mTOR have been described. mTORC1 links to the classical rapamycin-sensitive pathways relevant for protein synthesis; mTORC2 links to the activation of Rho GTPases and cytoskeletal events via undefined mechanisms. Here we demonstrate that P-Rex1 and P-Rex2 establish, through their tandem DEP domains, interactions with mTOR, suggesting their potential as effectors in the signaling of mTOR to Rac activation and cell migration. This possibility was consistent with the effect of dominant-negative constructs and short hairpin RNA-mediated knockdown of P-Rex1, which decreased mTOR-dependent leucine-induced activation of Rac and cell migration. Rapamycin, a widely used inhibitor of mTOR signaling, did not inhibit Rac activity and cell migration induced by leucine, indicating that P-Rex1, which we found associated to both mTOR complexes, is only active when in the mTORC2 complex. mTORC2 has been described as the catalytic complex that phosphorylates AKT/PKB at Ser-473 and elicits activation of Rho GTPases and cytoskeletal reorganization. Thus, P-Rex1 links mTOR signaling to Rac activation and cell migration.P-Rex1 and P-Rex2 are Rac guanine exchange factors connecting G protein-coupled receptors, through G␤␥ and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, to Rac activation. In particular, P-Rex1 has been associated with the activation of Rac2, generating reactive oxygen species in neutrophils. P-Rex2 (showing two splice variants) is similarly regulated by G␤␥ and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. Northern blot assays revealed a differential distribution of the two members of the P-Rex 3 family, suggesting that they exert equivalent functions in different cellular populations (1-3, 7-11). The complex architecture of this family of proteins, constituted by a catalytic DH domain, followed by a phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive pleckstrin homology domain, two DEP and two PDZ domains in tandem, and a long carboxyl terminus (except for P-Rex2b, which is the short version, having a reduced carboxyl terminus), suggests that these Rac guanine exchange factors might be regulated by diverse protein-protein interactions modulating signal transduction pathways associated with the activation of Rac. In fact, in the developing brain, P-Rex1 is associated with neuronal migration in response to nerve growth factor (12, 13).The mammalian target of rapamycin, mTOR, a highly conserved serine-threonine k...

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) regulates cell growth and survival via two different multiprotein complexes, mTORC1 and mTORC2. The assembly of these serine-threonine kinase multiprotein complexes occurs via poorly understood molecular mechanisms. Here, we demonstrate that GRp58/ERp57 regulates the existence and activity of mTORC1. Endogenous mTOR interacts with GRp58/ERp57 in different mammalian cells. In vitro, recombinant GRp58/ERp57 preferentially interacts with mTORC1. GRp58/ERp57 knockdown reduces mTORC1 levels and phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 and p70 S6K in response to insulin. In contrast, GRp58/ERp57 overexpression increases mTORC1 levels and activity. A redox-sensitive mechanism that depends on GRp58/ERp57 expression activates mTORC1. Although GRp58/ERp57 is known as an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resident, we demonstrate its presence at the cytosol, together with mTOR, Raptor, and Rictor as well as a pool of these proteins associated to the ER. In addition, the presence of GRp58/ERp57 at the ER decreases in response to insulin or leucine. Interestingly, a fraction of p70 S6K, but not 4E-BP1, is associated to the ER and phosphorylated in response to serum, insulin, or leucine. Altogether, our results suggest that GRp58/ERp57 is involved in the assembly of mTORC1 and positively regulates mTORC1 signaling at the cytosol and the cytosolic side of the ER.

Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1/CXCL-12) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which can be secreted by hypoxic tumors, promote the generation of new blood vessels. These potent angiogenic factors stimulate endothelial cell migration via the activation of Rho GTPases and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT signaling pathway. Thus, characterization of guanine nucleotide exchange factors critical in the angiogenic signaling cascades offers the possibility of identifying novel molecular targets. We demonstrated previously that mammalian target of rapamycin, an important effector and regulator of PI3K/AKT, activates phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate-dependent Rac exchanger 1 (P-Rex1), a Rac guanine nucleotide exchange factor identified as a target of G␤␥ and PI3K, via direct interactions. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that P-Rex1 is involved in the angiogenic responses elicited by SDF-1 and VEGF. Using a knockdown approach, we demonstrate that P-Rex1 is indeed required for SDF-1 promoted signaling pathway, because there is decreased Rac activation, cell migration, and in vitro angiogenesis in P-Rex1 knockdown cells stimulated with SDF-1. In contrast, P-Rex1 knockdown does not affect responses to VEGF, and signaling to extracellular signalregulated kinase in response to either angiogenic factor is not sensitive to P-Rex1 knockdown. We also demonstrate that in endothelial cells, VEGF promotes an increase in the expression of endogenous P-Rex1 and the SDF-1 receptor CXCR4, In addition, VEGF-pretreated cells show an increased migratory and angiogenic response to SDF-1, suggesting that VEGF stimulation can complement SDF-1/ CXCR4 signaling to induce angiogenesis. We conclude that P-Rex1 is a key element in SDF-1-induced angiogenic responses and a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

The cerebral vasculature provides the massive blood supply that the brain needs to grow and survive. By acquiring distinctive cellular and molecular characteristics it becomes the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a selectively permeable and protective interface between the brain and the peripheral circulation that maintains the extracellular milieu permissive for neuronal activity. Accordingly, there is great interest in uncovering the mechanisms that modulate the formation and differentiation of the brain vasculature. By performing a forward genetic screen in zebrafish we isolated no food for thought (nft y72 ), a recessive late-lethal mutant that lacks most of the intracerebral central arteries (CtAs), but not other brain blood vessels. We found that the cerebral vascularization deficit of nft y72 mutants is caused by an inactivating lesion in reversion-inducing cysteine-rich protein with Kazal motifs [reck; also known as suppressor of tumorigenicity 15 protein (ST15)], which encodes a membrane-anchored tumor suppressor glycoprotein. Our findings highlight Reck as a novel and pivotal modulator of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway that acts in endothelial cells to enable intracerebral vascularization and proper expression of molecular markers associated with BBB formation. Additional studies with cultured endothelial cells suggest that, in other contexts, Reck impacts vascular biology via the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) cascade. Together, our findings have broad implications for both vascular and cancer biology.

Breast cancer metastasis to the bone, potentially facilitated by chemotactic and angiogenic cytokines, contributes to a dramatic osteolytic effect associated with this invasive behavior. Based on the intrinsic ability of calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) to control hormonal secretion and considering its expression in the breast, we hypothesized that CaSR plays a chemotactic and proangiogenic role in highly invasive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells by promoting secretion of multiple cytokines. In this study, we show that MDA-MB-231 cells stimulated with R-568 calcimimetic and extracellular calcium secreted multiple cytokines and growth factors that induced endothelial cell migration and in vitro angiogenesis. These effects were dependent on the activity of CaSR as demonstrated by the inhibitory effect of either anti-CaSR blocking monoclonal antibodies or calcilytic NPS-2143. Moreover, CaSR knockdown prevented the proangiogenic effect of CaSR agonists. Importantly, CaSR promoted secretion of pleiotropic molecules like GM-CSF, EGF, MDC/CCL22, FGF-4 and IGFBP2, all known to be chemotactic mediators with putative angiogenic factor properties. In contrast, constitutive secretion of IL-6 and β-NGF was attenuated by CaSR. In the case of normal mammary cells, secretion of IL-6 was stimulated by CaSR, whereas a constitutive secretion of RANTES, Angiogenin and Oncostatin M was attenuated by this receptor. Taken together, our results indicate that an altered secretion of chemotactic and proangiogenic cytokines in breast cancer cells is modulated by CaSR, which can be considered a potential target in the therapy of metastatic breast cancer.