Arm complaints are common, with nearly half of the subjects reporting pain. The factors associated with elbow and shoulder pain were different, suggesting differing etiologies. Developmental factors may be important in both. To lower the risk of pain at both locations, young pitchers probably should not throw more than 75 pitches in a game. Other recommendations are to remove pitchers from a game if they demonstrate arm fatigue and limit pitching in nonleague games.

Cancer of the stomach is one of the most commonly diagnosed malignancies and remains an important cause of mortality world wide. This type of cancer is not uniformly distributed among populations but shows a marked variation in both incidence and mortality. Although gastric cancer is declining in many parts of the world, the reasons for this decline are not well understood and its etiology remains unclear. Several factors are suspected to play a role in gastric carcinogenesis, including the effects of diet, exogenous chemicals, intragastric synthesis of carcinogens, genetic factors, infectious agents and pathological conditions in the stomach (such as gastritis). A new look at the results of epidemiological and experimental studies is important for the establishment of strategies for control. Since cancer of the stomach has a very poor prognosis in its more advanced stages, such a control program must have its main focus on primary prevention. This review describes our knowledge about cancer of the stomach regarding epidemiology, pathogenesis and prevention.

Over the past four decades in the United States, there has been a divergent trend in mortality rates between African-Americans and Caucasians with colorectal cancer (CRC). Rates among Caucasians have been steadily declining, whereas rates among African-Americans have only started a gradual decline in recent years. We reviewed epidemiologic studies of CRC racial disparities between African-Americans and Caucasians, including studies from SEER and population-based cancer registries, Veterans Affairs (VA) databases, healthcare coverage databases, and university and other medical center data sources. Elevated overall and stage-specific risks of CRC mortality and shorter survival for African-Americans compared with Caucasians were reported across all data sources. The magnitude of racial disparities varied across study groups, with the strongest associations observed in university and non-VA hospital-based medical center studies, while an attenuated discrepancy was found in VA database studies. An advanced stage of disease at the time of diagnosis among African-Americans is a major contributing factor to the racial disparity in survival. Several studies, however, have shown that an increased risk of CRC death among African-Americans remains even after controlling for tumor stage at diagnosis, socioeconomic factors, and comorbidity. Despite advances in treatment, improvements in the standard of care, and increased screening options, racial differences persist in CRC mortality and survival. Therefore, continued research efforts are necessary to disentangle the clinical, social, biological, and environmental factors that constitute the racial disparity. In addition, results across data sources should be considered when evaluating racial differences in cancer outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to characterize the relation between smokeless tobacco use and the risk of all-cause and disease-specific mortality. Using data from the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Epidemiologic Followup Study, the authors assessed the 20-year mortality experience of smokeless tobacco users. Subjects aged 45 years or more at baseline (1971-1975) were categorized as either smokeless tobacco users (n = 1,068) or non-smokeless tobacco users (n = 5,737). Subjects were further stratified by smoking status and gender. Proportional hazard ratios were used to assess associations. After adjustment for confounders, no association between smokeless tobacco use and all-cause (hazard ratio = 1.1, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.9, 1.3), all cancer (hazard ratio = 1.1, 95% CI: 0.6, 1.9), or all cardiovascular (hazard ratio = 1.1, 95% CI: 0.8, 1.5) mortality was found. There was an increase in all cancer mortality of borderline significance among female smokeless tobacco users (hazard ratio = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.0, 2.8). The lung cancer mortality rate among combined users (smokeless tobacco and cigarettes), based on the rates for exclusive smokeless tobacco users and exclusive smokers, was higher than expected, possibly because of heavier smoking among these subjects. The mortality experience of smokeless tobacco users was not significantly greater than that of non-tobacco users and was appreciably less than that of cigarette smokers. Furthermore, combined use of smokeless tobacco and cigarettes did not increase overall mortality beyond that expected from use of the individual products.

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Background-Studies have found associations between cancer therapies and auditory complications, but data are limited on long-term outcomes and risks associated with multiple exposures.

Recent developments in genetics and molecular biology have classified breast cancer into subtypes based on tumor markers of estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR) and human epidermal growth Factor-2 receptors (Her-2), with the basal-like (ER−, PR−, Her2−) subtype commonly referred to as “triple negative” breast cancer (TNBC) being the most aggressive. Prior studies have provided evidence that higher socio-economic status (SES) is associated with increased breast cancer risk, likely due to hormone related risk factors such as parity and hormonal contraceptive use. However, it is unclear if the relationship between SES and overall breast cancer incidence exists within each subtype, and if this association varies by race/ethnicity. Analysis was based on data obtained from the SEER database linked to 2008–2012 American Community Survey data, and restricted to women diagnosed with breast cancer in 2010. The NCI SES census tract SES index based on measures of income, poverty, unemployment, occupational class, education and house value, was examined and categorized into quintiles. Age-adjusted incidence rate ratios were calculated comparing the lowest to the highest SES groups by subtype, separately for each race/ethnic group. We identified 47,586 women with breast cancer diagnosed in 2010. The majority was diagnosed with Her2−/HR+ tumors (73 %), while 12 % had triple negative tumors (TNBC). There was a significant trend of higher incidence with increasing SES for Her2−/HR+ (IRR Highest vs. Lowest SES: 1.32, 95 % CI 1.27–1.39; p value trend: 0.01) and Her2+/HR+ tumors (IRR Highest vs. Lowest SES: 1.46, 95 % CI 1.27–1.68; p value trend: 0.01) among White cases. There was no association between SES and incidence of HR− subtypes (Her2+/HR− or TNBC). Similar associations were observed among Black, Hispanic and Asian or Pacific Islander cases. The positive association between SES and breast cancer incidence is primarily driven by hormone receptor positive tumors. To the extent that neighborhood SES is a proxy for individual SES, future studies are still needed to identify etiologic risk factors for other breast cancer subtypes.

Introduction-Approximately 80% of children currently survive 5 years following diagnosis of their cancer. Studies based on limited data have implicated certain cancer therapies in the development of ocular sequelae in these survivors.