The objective of this paper is to present a new theory of synaptic function in the nervous system. The basis for this theory is the experimental demonstration that a nerve impulse assumes five different forms as it advances through the synaptic region, and that five basic mathematical operations have been identified as being involved in the transformation of one form into another form. As a result of these data, the synaptic region is regarded as a functional unit where information coming to it is unpacked, processed, stored, and retrieved for transit to another synaptic region or effector site. The data also suggests that a nerve impulse is a bolus of energy, therefore, without substance; that it contains information coded in its shape or form; that it is precisely described mathematically. Furthermore, the data suggests synaptic regions process these nerve impulses by applying mathematical operations to them; that function in the synaptic region is highly stereotyped (programmed); that chemical substances are associated with the mathematical operations. The basic approach of this theory is to regard a significant portion of the nervous system as an 'interface' between the external universe and man himself. As an interface, the nervous system receives and processes information from both the external universe and man himself in a programmed manner. The interface functions by converting the information it receives into a bolus of energy, the nerve impulse, then processes the bolus by converting it into numbers or functions and applying mathematical operation to it.
Spontaneous impulses are discharged simultaneously and synchronously in pre-and post-ganglionic nerves of rat sympathetic ganglia infected with pseudo-rabies virus (Dempsher, Larrabee, Bang & Bodian, 1955). The virusinduced activity in the preganglionic nerve is antidromic (in a direction opposite to that occurring normally), whereas in the post-ganglionic nerve the activity is orthodromic or in the normal direction. In order to explain this derangement, the assumption was made that the activity had its origin in the preganglionic nerve endings and was produced by spontaneously released acetylcholine (ACh) acting upon the preganglionic nerve endings made superirritable by the virus infection (Dempsher & Riker, 1957). In support of this assumption were the following observations. Failure of virus-induced activity to develop in ganglia infected after preganglionic denervation, and the presence of spontaneous impulses in the preganglionic nerve in advanced infections whenever electrical stimulation failed to evoke a post-ganglionic response, supported the view that the site of origin (pace-maker) of the activity was located in the presynaptic nerve. Suppression of spontaneous impulses in the preganglionic nerve whenever that nerve was deprived of its endings, and suppression of activity occurring only in the post-ganglionic nerve by removal of calcium from the bathing solution, were interpreted to mean that the pace-maker was located in the presynaptic nerve endings. The simultaneous and synchronous increase in activity in both nerves produced by physostigmine, and the simultaneous and synchronous decrease in activity in both nerves whenever tubocurarine was applied, supported the view that the virus-induced activity was caused by ACh, and the site of action of ACh was the pace-maker located in the presynaptic nerve endings. In accord with this interpretation were the following observations. Applied ACh produced a simultaneous and synchronous increase in activity in both nerves, thus
A new theow of synaptic function in the nervous system (Dempsher, 1978) is applied to the simplest system for integration of function in the nervous system. This system includes a sensory and motor neuron and three 'synaptic' regions associated with those two neurons; a receptor region, an interneuronal spinal synaptic region linking the two neurons, and an effector region.Information is first received and processed at the receptor region. The processing consists of five components: I. A highly selective mechanism which allows only that information to enter the receptor system which is appropriate. 2. The 'appropriateness' of the information is determined by the alphabet (miniature potentials) already in that area. 3. The information entering the system is assembled in a pattern meaningful for the next processing operation. 4. The assembled information is then 'disassembled' into its subuults and mapped into the alphabet (miniature potentials). 5. These miniature potentials are assembled into another pattern meaningful to fit the role of the receptor region. 6. This new pattern is repacked for transit to the central synaptic region.At the central synaptic region, essentially the same process takes place except here an additional operation takes place which determines its role in the processing system. The incoming information is disassembled into its subunlts, mapped into the miniature potentials already there; these are collected together in a meaningful pattern, 'operated' on, then repacked for transit to the effector site, where again the same kind of processing sequence takes place.In all three regions, despite the difference in their roles, there are similar processing features:(1) In each region, three forms of the nerve impulse are involved: miniature graded potentials, graded potentials, action potentials.(2) In each region, each component of the process is carried out by a precise mathematical operation: four each in the receptor and effector regions; five in the cen'cral synaptic region. JOHN DEMPSHERIt is suggested that integration of function in the nervous system consists of converting information into energy which is in turn converted into a number. Processing of information at each region then involves mathematical operations applied to these numbers. Function appears to be stereotyped in aU three regions. The receptor region receives highly selective and restrictive information so that the universe we 'perceive' would appear to be a subset of a much larger universe.
One of the characteristic effects of pseudo-rabies virus infection in the superior cervical ganglion of the rat is the occurrence of spontaneous nerve impulses. They are discharged periodically over both preganglionic and post-ganglionic trunks, orthodromically in the post-ganglionic, and antidromically in the preganglionic trunk (Dempsher, Larrabee, Bang & Bodian, 1955).In order to explain this spontaneous activity, it was assumed that following infection with pseudo-rabies virus a state of hyperexcitability develops at the presynaptic nerve endings which enables impulses to be generated in a few presynaptic nerve endings. This leads to excitation of the ganglion cells, as well as to an abnormal retrograde spread of excitation over the preganglionic fibres (Dempsher et al. 1955). Evidence supporting the view that the spontaneous impulses discharged over pre-and post-ganglionic tissues of virusinfected ganglia have their origin in presynaptic nerve terminations, was obtained by suppressing the activity in the post-synaptic neurones, and demonstrating that the activity continued in the presynaptic nerve.The experiments described in this paper confirm this hypothesis and they suggest that spontaneous release of acetylcholine (ACh) at presynaptic terminations plays a role in the spread of activity over both nerve trunks. The experiments deal with the effects of preganglionic denervation, of calcium removal, of tubocurarine, acetylcholine, and physostigmine on the spontaneous activity in infected ganglia. METHODSThe methods, which have been described in detail by Dempsher et al. (1955), were essentially as follows: Rat superior cervical ganglia were infected following intraocular inoculations of a 10% suspension of pseudo-rabies-infected chorio-allantoic membranes of 10-to 12-day-old chick embryos. The ganglia were excised at a desired stage of infection and suspended upon platinum
The Classical Theory of function in the nervous system postulates that the nerve impulse is the result of a sequential reversal of the membrane potential due to an increased permeability of the membrane, first to sodium ions, then to potassium ions. The new theory presents a bio-physical model which depicts the nerve impulse as an event involving the motions of electrons and waves, and their interactions with sodium and potassium atoms and ions. The velocity of the nerve impulse (the most important parameter of nerve function) is determined by the product of two constants: c = the speed of light, which is a constant for all nerves; k = a constant for each nerve and is believed to be a specific property of nerve matter related in some way to the atomic process. The theory proposes that the nerve impulse in the axon is 'dualistic' in nature (particles and waves play equally significant roles). The dualistic nature accounts for the three most fundamental characteristics of conduction of the nerve impulse: periodicity (conduction of a nerve impulse over long distances with constant velocity and form); non-summing (two nerve impulses cannot be in the same place at the same time); 'quantum nature' of each nerve impulse - i.e., the unit message of the nerve impulse is an indivisible unit.
The purpose of this paper is to present a bio-physical basis of mathematics. The essence of the theory is that function in the nervous system is mathematical. The mathematics arises as a result of the interaction of energy (a wave with a precise curvature in space and time) and matter (a molecular or ionic structure with a precise form in space and time). In this interaction, both energy and matter play an active role. That is, the interaction results in a change in form of both energy and matter. There are at least six mathematical operations in a simple synaptic region. It is believed the form of both energy and matter are specific, and their interaction is specific, that is, function in most of the 'mind' and placed where it belongs - in nature and the synaptic regions of the nervous system; it results in both places from a precise interaction between energy (in a precise form) and matter ( in a precise structure).
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