Ocean ambient noise results from both anthropogenic and natural sources. Different noise sources are dominant in each of 3 frequency bands: low (10 to 500 Hz), medium (500 Hz to 25 kHz) and high (> 25 kHz). The low-frequency band is dominated by anthropogenic sources: primarily, commercial shipping and, secondarily, seismic exploration. Shipping and seismic sources contribute to ambient noise across ocean basins, since low-frequency sound experiences little attenuation, allowing for long-range propagation. Over the past few decades the shipping contribution to ambient noise has increased by as much as 12 dB, coincident with a significant increase in the number and size of vessels comprising the world's commercial shipping fleet. During this time, oil exploration and construction activities along continental margins have moved into deeper water, and the long-range propagation of seismic signals has increased. Medium frequency sound cannot propagate over long ranges, owing to greater attenuation, and only local or regional (10s of km distant) sound sources contribute to the ambient noise field. Ambient noise in the mid-frequency band is primarily due to sea-surface agitation: breaking waves, spray, bubble formation and collapse, and rainfall. Various sonars (e.g. military and mapping), as well as small vessels, contribute anthropogenic noise at mid-frequencies. At high frequencies, acoustic attenuation becomes extreme so that all noise sources are confined to an area close to the receiver. Thermal noise, the result of Brownian motion of water molecules near the hydrophone, is the dominant noise source above about 60 kHz.

SUMMARY Fin whales are among the largest predators on earth, yet little is known about their foraging behavior at depth. These whales obtain their prey by lunge-feeding, an extraordinary biomechanical event where large amounts of water and prey are engulfed and filtered. This process entails a high energetic cost that effectively decreases dive duration and increases post-dive recovery time. To examine the body mechanics of fin whales during foraging dives we attached high-resolution digital tags, equipped with a hydrophone, a depth gauge and a dual-axis accelerometer, to the backs of surfacing fin whales in the Southern California Bight. Body pitch and roll were estimated by changes in static gravitational acceleration detected by orthogonal axes of the accelerometer, while higher frequency, smaller amplitude oscillations in the accelerometer signals were interpreted as bouts of active fluking. Instantaneous velocity of the whale was determined from the magnitude of turbulent flow noise measured by the hydrophone and confirmed by kinematic analysis. Fin whales employed gliding gaits during descent, executed a series of lunges at depth and ascended to the surface by steady fluking. Our examination of body kinematics at depth reveals variable lunge-feeding behavior in the context of distinct kinematic modes, which exhibit temporal coordination of rotational torques with translational accelerations. Maximum swimming speeds during lunges match previous estimates of the flow-induced pressure needed to completely expand the buccal cavity during feeding.

We assessed the behavioral context of calls produced by blue whales Balaenoptera musculus off the California coast based on acoustic, behavioral, and dive data obtained through acoustic recording tags, sex determination from tissue sampling, and coordinated visual and acoustic observations. Approximately one-third of 38 monitored blue whales vocalized, with sounds categorized into 3 types: (1) low-frequency pulsed A and tonal B calls, in either rhythmic repetitive song sequences or as intermittent, singular calls; (2) downswept D calls; and (3) highly variable amplitudeor frequency-modulated calls. Clear patterns of behavior, sex, and group size are evident for some call types. Only males were documented producing AB calls, with song produced by lone, traveling blue whales, and singular AB calls were more typically produced by whales in pairs; D calls were heard from both sexes during foraging, commonly from individuals within groups. The sex bias evident in AB callers suggests that these calls probably play a role in reproduction, even though the calls are produced year-round. All calls are produced at shallow depth, and calling whales spend more time at shallow depths than non-calling whales, suggesting that a cost may be incurred during D calling, as less time is spent feeding at deeper depths. This relationship between calling and depth may predict the traveling behavior of singing blue whales, as traveling whales do not typically dive to deep depths and therefore would experience little extra energetic cost related to the production of long repetitive song bouts while moving between foraging areas.

Recent measurement at a previously studied location illustrates the magnitude of increases in ocean ambient noise in the Northeast Pacific over the past four decades. Continuous measurements west of San Nicolas Island, California, over 138days, spanning 2003–2004 are compared to measurements made during the 1960s at the same site. Ambient noise levels at 30–50Hz were 10–12dB higher (95% CI=2.6dB) in 2003–2004 than in 1964–1966, suggesting an average noise increase rate of 2.5–3dB per decade. Above 50Hz the noise level differences between recording periods gradually diminished to only 1–3dB at 100–300Hz. Above 300Hz the 1964–1966 ambient noise levels were higher than in 2003–2004, owing to a diel component which was absent in the more recent data. Low frequency (10–50Hz) ocean ambient noise levels are closely related to shipping vessel traffic. The number of commercial vessels plying the world’s oceans approximately doubled between 1965 and 2003 and the gross tonnage quadrupled, with a corresponding increase in horsepower. Increases in commercial shipping are believed to account for the observed low-frequency ambient noise increase.

Shear-wave splitting analysis of local events recorded on land and on the ocean floor in the Tonga arc and Lau backarc indicate a complex pattern of azimuthal anisotropy that cannot be explained by mantle flow coupled to the downgoing plate. These observations suggest that the direction of mantle flow rotates from convergence-parallel in the Fiji plateau to north-south beneath the Lau basin and arc-parallel beneath the Tonga arc. These results correlate with helium isotopes that map mantle flow of the Samoan plume into the Lau basin through an opening tear in the Pacific plate.

Underwater radiated noise measurements for seven types of modern commercial ships during normal operating conditions are presented. Calibrated acoustic data (<1000 Hz) from an autonomous seafloor-mounted acoustic recorder were combined with ship passage information from the Automatic Identification System. This approach allowed for detailed measurements (i.e., source level, sound exposure level, and transmission range) on ships of opportunity. A key result was different acoustic levels and spectral shapes observed from different ship-types. A 54 kGT container ship had the highest broadband source level at 188 dB re 1 μPa@1m; a 26 kGT chemical tanker had the lowest at 177 dB re 1 μPa@1m. Bulk carriers had higher source levels near 100 Hz, while container ship and tanker noise was predominantly below 40 Hz. Simple models to predict source levels of modern merchant ships as a group from particular ship characteristics (e.g., length, gross tonnage, and speed) were not possible given individual ship-type differences. Furthermore, ship noise was observed to radiate asymmetrically. Stern aspect noise levels are 5 to 10 dB higher than bow aspect noise levels. Collectively, these results emphasize the importance of including modern ship-types in quantifying shipping noise for predictive models of global, regional, and local marine environments.

The spectral and temporal properties of echolocation clicks and the use of clicks for species classification are investigated for five species of free-ranging dolphins found offshore of southern California: short-beaked common (Delphinus delphis), long-beaked common (D. capensis), Risso's (Grampus griseus), Pacific white-sided (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), and bottlenose (Tursiops truncatus) dolphins. Spectral properties are compared among the five species and unique spectral peak and notch patterns are described for two species. The spectral peak mean values from Pacific white-sided dolphin clicks are 22.2, 26.6, 33.7, and 37.3 kHz and from Risso's dolphins are 22.4, 25.5, 30.5, and 38.8 kHz. The spectral notch mean values from Pacific white-sided dolphin clicks are 19.0, 24.5, and 29.7 kHz and from Risso's dolphins are 19.6, 27.7, and 35.9 kHz. Analysis of variance analyses indicate that spectral peaks and notches within the frequency band 24-35 kHz are distinct between the two species and exhibit low variation within each species. Post hoc tests divide Pacific white-sided dolphin recordings into two distinct subsets containing different click types, which are hypothesized to represent the different populations that occur within the region. Bottlenose and common dolphin clicks do not show consistent patterns of spectral peaks or notches within the frequency band examined (1-100 kHz).

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