Research on altruism has focused on its positive roots, whereas research on the effects of victimization and suffering has focused on aggression and difficulties in functioning. However, anecdotal evidence, case studies, and some empirical research indicate that victimization and suffering can also lead people to care about and help others. This article examines the relation of "altruism born of suffering" to resilience and posttraumatic growth, and proposes potentially facilitating influences on altruism born of suffering during, after, and preceding victimization and trauma. These include experiences that promote healing, understanding what led harm doers to their actions, having received help and having helped oneself or others at the time of one's suffering, caring by others, and prosocial role models. We suggest psychological changes that may result from these influences and lead to altruistic action: strengthening of the self, a more positive orientation toward people, empathy and belief in one's personal responsibility for others' welfare. The article critically reviews relevant research, and suggests future research directions and interventions to promote altruism born of suffering. Given the amount of violence between individuals and groups, understanding how victims become caring rather than aggressive is important for promoting a more peaceful world.

This paper introduces the concept of ''altruism born of suffering,'' and provides a review and integration of relevant research and theories from various disciplines. In contrast to the well-supported notion that prosocial behavior is rooted in positive experiences, whereas violence and adversity often contribute to further violence and antisocial behavior, it is proposed that suffering may actually enhance the motivation to help other disadvantaged members of society, including outgroups. A motivational process model is presented that includes a typology of altruism born of suffering, integrates clinical and social psychological perspectives on underlying processes, and proposes potential mediators and moderators. Relevant empirical studies are reviewed that provide initial support for this model. A particular emphasis is placed on victims of group-based violence, and implications for intergroup relations and social justice.Keywords Altruism Á Prosocial behavior Á Suffering Á Collective violence Á Intergroup relations A commonly held view is that altruism and prosocial behavior originate in positive experiences and processes, whereas antisocial behavior is often rooted in negative conditions and life experiences. Indeed, social psychological theories of altruism and prosocial behavior tend to study the phenomenon in the general population and have focused on positive factors, whereas most research on traumatic events and adverse life experiences is centered in the field of clinical psychology and has focused on negative, psychopathological effects.

This chapter discusses the role of collective victimization in inciting, sustaining, and preventing intergroup conflict. The emerging psychological literature on this topic has studied collective victimization that was experienced directly in one's lifetime, as well as collective victimization experienced indirectly, through transgenerational and societal transmission. Affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses to collective violence against the ingroup are discussed that affect intergroup relations with the perpetrator group and with other groups—in ways that either contribute to cycles of violence and revenge, or to constructive intergroup outcomes such as solidarity and reconciliation. Various types of victim beliefs that social psychologists have recently begun to study are broadly classified as conflict-specific or global, and as inclusive or exclusive victim beliefs. Additional factors are identified that might moderate the effects of collective victimization on intergroup outcomes. The chapter concludes with a discussion of interventions that have addressed the role of collective victimization and victim beliefs.

While researchers and policy makers often focus their attention on the detrimental consequences of collective victimhood, it has been posited that these negative outcomes are linked to particular construals of the ingroup's victimization: namely those that focus on the uniqueness of these experiences (exclusive victim consciousness). In contrast, perceived similarities across victim groups (inclusive victim consciousness) may be associated with more positive outcomes, including victim groups assisting and advocating for each other or engaging in joint collective action. Drawing on social psychological research and real-world cases, this review provides examples of inclusive victim consciousness in several policyrelevant domains. A distinction is made between conflict-specific and general inclusive victim consciousness. Additionally, motivations for expressing inclusive victim consciousness are discussed that vary in their degree of ingroup-versus outgroup-concern. Factors are suggested that may promote or decrease inclusive victim consciousness, including steps that can be taken by policy makers and practitioners. Finally, potential challenges and risks involved in attempts to promote inclusive victim consciousness are discussed.Members of victimized or disadvantaged groups can be powerful advocates for other victim groups-both within their own society and globally. Numerous examples in different parts of the world and periods of history show how a sense of shared collective victimhood and oppression can mobilize people to advocate on behalf of other groups that are disadvantaged or in need, help garner support for their cause, create powerful alliances that can influence votes and policies,