Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are the predominant energy storage systems for portable electronic devices, power tools, electric vehicles, and microscale autonomous devices because of their high energy and power densities. [1][2][3][4] With the widening range of applications for LIB, it is necessary that advances be made in the technology to meet the increasingly demanding requirements for energy density, power density, and safety. Graphite, the anode material in most commercial LIB, is the limiting electrode to attain higher volumetric energy density because of its low gravimetric capacity and density. [4,5] Therefore, there is significant scientific effort into replacing graphite with lithium (Li)-alloying anodes that possess higher gravimetric and volumetric capacities than graphite. [6][7][8][9] Tin (Sn) is a promising Li-alloying material as the anode in LIB because of its higher volumetric and gravimetric capacities. [5,[10][11][12] Similar to other Li-alloying materials, the major hindrance to use Sn in LIB is the large volumetric change (%260%) [13] it undergoes during (de)lithiation. This volume change has two main effects on the electrochemical performance of Sn-based materials. First, the volume change causes electrode particle pulverization that leads to capacity fade, as the active material loses electronic contact with the current collector. Second, it causes the formation and destruction of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), which grows as the electrode is cycled, increasing the cell impedance and causing subsequent fast capacity fade. [11,12] Several strategies have been proposed to mitigate the volume change of Sn electrodes during cycling. One promising strategy is to downsize the electrode particles to the nanoscale in the form of nanowires, [14][15][16][17] nanoparticles, [18] or nanoporous structures, [11] which help to accommodate stress on the particles during volume change. [10] Another strategy is to use Sn-based materials in the form of oxides, [15,17,19] phosphides, [20,21] sulfides, [22,23] or Sn-M alloys (M ¼ Cu, Fe, Ni, etc.). [24][25][26][27][28][29] In addition to buffering volume change, the introduction of M to form Sn-M alloys enhances the electronic conductivity and avoids Sn particles' aggregation during cycling, improving the rate performance (RP) and capacity retention of the electrode. [10,[24][25][26][27][28][29]
Li-ion microbatteries are the frontline candidates to fulfill the requirements of powering miniature autonomous devices. However, it still remains challenging to attain the required energy densities of > 0.3mWh/cm-2µm-1 in a planar configuration. To overcome this limitation, 3D architectures of LIMBs have been proposed. However, most deposition techniques are poorly compatible with 3D architectures because they limit the choice of current collectors and selective deposition of the active materials. Electrodeposition was suggested as an alternative for rapidly and reproducibly depositing active materials under mild conditions, and with controlled properties. However, despite the huge potential, electrodeposition remains underexplored for LIMB cathode materials, partly due to challenges associated with the electrodeposition of Li-ion phases. Herein, we review advances in the electrodeposition of Li-ion cathode materials with the main focus set on the direct, one-step deposition of electrochemically active phases. We highlight the merits of electrodeposition over other methods and discuss the various classes of reported materials, including layered transition metal oxides, vanadates, spinel, and olivines. We offer a perspective on the future advances for the adoption of electrodeposition processes for the fabrication of microbatteries to pave the way for future research on the electrodeposition of cathode materials.
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