Following a pilot study, the aim of this study was to test the hypothesis whether occurrence of massaging the anogenital region of a calf by a non-maternal hind is a reliable indicator of adoption. The investigation was conducted between 28 May (1st day of calving) and 2 September (abrupt weaning of all calves) on a red deer farm at Vimperk, Czech Republic. Fifty hinds and their calves were observed but only complete data sets of sucking bouts were considered for evaluation. Massaging occurred mostly during the 1st month of the calf’s life. All filial calves were massaged repeatedly. Other calves received ano-genital massage at least twice (termed adopted), on a single occasion or not at all (termed non-filial). Filial and adopted calves behaved in a similar way but differently from non-filial calves. They sucked in an antiparallel standing position so that the hind could lick their ano-genital region more often than the non-filial calves. This occurred even when two calves were involved in the bout. When two calves were involved in the sucking bout, non-filial calves sucked from behind, between the hind’s hind legs. This position occurred more frequently with non-filial than among the filial and adopted calves. It was therefore concluded, that repeated allonursing accompanied with massaging of the ano-genital region of the sucking calf by the hind can be considered a signal of adoption. Hinds usually adopted calves older than their own progeny. The adopted calves were on average 2·5 days old. This suggests that it is most likely the calf’s activity which leads to bonding. No reciprocity was found in allosucking and/or allonursing. The fact that non-filial calves commonly initiated allosucking from a non-maternal hind during the day when she gave birth appeared crucial for establishing bonding which subsequently led to adoption. Hinds may be bonded with several calves including their own. Therefore, bonding with a non-filial calf did not principally mean failure in looking after their own progeny as shown in other studies.

It is generally presumed that allosucking brings benefits to the allosucking infants. Nevertheless, the data supporting such a presumption are rare. The aim of the study was to determine whether allosucking has any impact on growth rates of the allosucking calves. Fifty pregnant hinds were observed between 28 May (1st day of calving) and 2 September (abrupt weaning of all calves) on a red deer farm at Vimperk, South Bohemia, the Czech Republic. Of the 50 calves born the growth curve was calculated for 39 calves. During their 1st month of life these calves were observed in 1015 sucking bouts. In 690 cases the calves sucked from maternal hinds and in 325 cases non-maternal hinds. Only 25·64% of calves sucked exclusively from maternal hinds. The prevailing type of sucking behaviour was a combination of sucking from maternal hinds and allosucking (74·36%). Calves sucking from maternal and non-maternal hinds showed 1·6-fold higher sucking frequency than did calves feeding from maternal hinds only. Our results indicate that to some extend allonursing behaviour of the hind may affect their calves’ feeding behaviour. The more non-filial calves the maternal hind nursed, the higher frequency of the sucking by their calves occurred. The groups of calves did not differ in birth weight. With increasing age, the relative body weight increased faster in calves sucking maternal hinds only than in calves sucking maternal and non-maternal hinds. This gain in body weight was not essentially influenced by the fact whether or not the calf’s maternal hind nursed non-filial or exclusively filial calves. However, at weaning (99 days), the lowest body weight occurred in allosucking calves whose maternal hinds were allonursing. The results suggest that allosucking does not mean an extra profit to the allosucker. Instead, in our subjects, allosucking was rather attributed to compensation of nutritional requirements based on a combination of various factors, such as discrete differences in body weight at birth and also later and allonursing of the maternal hind.

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Small ungulates may compete with larger species through higher mobility, greater aggressiveness, and/or by larger group sizes. We observed a herd of approximately 100 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 130 fallow deer (Dama dama) at the Žehušice Deer Park during supplemental feeding to determine whether fallow deer can displace red deer at feeding sites and to describe strategies used for displacement. Data were analyzed during the antlered period (AP) when males of both species had hard antlers and the cast period (CP) when all red deer stags had cast antlers, but fallow bucks were still in a hard antler. We conducted 41 observation sessions, 29 during the AP and 12 during the CP. In both periods red deer were more numerous than fallow deer at the feeding sites. Fallow bucks initially waited until red deer arrived at the feeding site, after which they attacked any red deer. Fallow bucks were more aggressive than red deer stags or hinds. When stags retaliated, the bucks turned their attacks toward hinds. During feeding sessions, attacks against hinds intensified, while bucks avoided encounters with stags. As a result, in most cases (90%), red deer vacated the feeding site before the supplementary food was depleted. In contrast, fallow does not compete with the larger red deer and selected other sources of food in the park. © 1996 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

The mating system of feral Sika deer (Cervus nippon) in the Manětín Forest (220 km2), Czech Republic, was studied from 1989 to 1993. The Sika were strictly nocturnal due to hunting pressure and continuous human harassment during daylight. We therefore monitored rutting activity by triangulating male Sika calls recorded from different sites, and also by counting Sika in open areas using a spot light. In all seasons, calling activity was unequally distributed over the area, usually concentrated in fields close to the forest. In 1989 the Sika established a lek. Later, the mating system changed to dispersed rutting stands. These rutting stands were occupied intermittently and were located in open pasture, mature forest, and in the boundaries between these two habitat types.

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