Publication information Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 84 (4): 617-629Publisher Springer Item record/more information http://hdl.handle.net/10197/5314 Publisher's statementThe final publication is available at www.springerlink.com can lead to the generation of toxic compounds that are of environmental concern, yet similar biotransformations can yield difficult-to-synthesise products and intermediates, in particular derivatives of biologically active secondary metabolites. In this paper we review the historical and recent developments of organofluorine biotransformation in microorganisms, and highlight the possibility of using microbes as models of fluorinated drug metabolism in mammals.3

In drug development access to drug metabolites is essential for assessment of toxicity and pharmacokinetic studies. Metabolites are usually acquired via chemical synthesis, although biological production is potentially more efficient with fewer waste management issues. A significant problem with the biological approach is the effective half-life of the biocatalyst, which can be resolved by immobilisation. The fungus Cunninghamella elegans is well established as a model of mammalian metabolism, although it has not yet been used to produce metabolites on a large scale. Here we describe immobilisation of C. elegans as a biofilm, which can transform drugs to important human metabolites. The biofilm was cultivated on hydrophilic microtiter plates and in shake flasks containing a steel spring in contact with the glass. Fluorescence and confocal scanning laser microscopy revealed that the biofilm was composed of a dense network of hyphae, and biochemical analysis demonstrated that the matrix was predominantly polysaccharide. The medium composition 2 was crucial for both biofilm formation and biotransformation of flurbiprofen. In shake flasks the biofilm transformed 86 % of the flurbiprofen added to hydroxylated metabolites within 24 h, which was slightly more than planktonic cultures (76 %). The biofilm had a longer effective lifetime than the planktonic cells, which underwent lysis after 2 × 72 h cycles, and diluting the Sabouraud dextrose broth enabled the thickness of the biofilm to be controlled while retaining transformation efficiency. Thus, C. elegans biofilm has the potential to be applied as a robust biocatalyst for the production of human drug metabolites required for drug development.3

The biotransformation of the fluorinated anti-inflammatory drug flurbiprofen was investigated in Cunninghamella spp. Mono-and dihydroxylated metabolites were detected using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and fluorine-19 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and the major metabolite 4-hydroxyflurbiprofen was isolated by preparative high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Cunninghamella elegans DSM 1908 and C. blakesleeana DSM 1906 also produced a phase II (conjugated) metabolite, which was identified as the sulfated drug via deconjugation experiments.One of the objectives of the recent European Union legislation governing the testing and evaluation of chemicals, REACH (Regulation, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals), is to further reduce the need for animals in the testing process. Some microorganisms, such as the zygomycete fungus Cunninghamella and actinomycetes bacteria, have been shown to metabolize xenobiotic compounds in a fashion analogous to that of mammals (3,5,11,17). It was suggested over 3 decades ago that microorganisms had potential as models of mammalian metabolism (16), although there are concerns about their predictive value (8). Nevertheless, certain microorganisms can be applied to the generation of useful quantities of drug metabolic intermediates (13), which is more desirable than isolation of these compounds from dosed animals, and avoids the concerns often associated with chemical synthesis, such as the use of toxic reagents and harsh reaction conditions.Owing to the desirable physicochemical properties of the fluorine atom (small Van der Waals radius, electronegativity, and strength of the carbon-fluorine bond), approximately 25% of drugs either currently on the market or in the pipeline are fluorinated (12). One such example is flurbiprofen [(RS)-2-(2-fluoro-4-biphenyl)propionic acid], which is a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of inflammation caused by arthritis. In humans it is transformed to the phase I (oxidative) metabolites 4Ј-hydroxyflurbiprofen, 3Ј,4Ј-dihydroxyflurbiprofen, and 3Ј-hydroxy,4Ј-methoxyflurbiprofen; glucuronide and sulfate conjugates (phase II metabolites) have also been detected (9, 15). In equine urine additional hydroxylated and methoxylated metabolites were detected (20). Tracy et al. (18) demonstrated that only one cytochrome P450 isoform (2C9) is involved in the oxidation of flurbiprofen, which makes the drug a potentially useful in vivo probe for this particular isoform. Despite the prevalence of fluorinated drugs, only a few investigations have been undertaken to determine the microbial biotransformation of these compounds (7, 21). Here we describe the biotransformation of flurbiprofen by Cunninghamella species and the determination of the metabolites by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy ( 1 H and 19 F), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).Three species of Cunninghamella were selected for the biotransformation experiments: C. ...

The fungus Cunninghamella elegans is a useful model of human catabolism of xenobiotics. In this paper, the biotransformation of fluorinated biphenyls by C. elegans was investigated by analysis of the culture supernatants with a variety of analytical techniques. 4-Fluorobiphenyl was principally transformed to 4-fluoro-4'-hydroxybiphenyl, but other mono- and dihydroxylated compounds were detected in organic extracts by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Additionally, fluorinated water-soluble products were detected by (19)F NMR and were identified as sulphate and beta-glucuronide conjugates. Other fluorobiphenyls (2-fluoro-, 4,4'-difluoro- and 2,3,4,5,6-pentafluoro-biphenyl) were catabolised by C. elegans, yielding mono- and dihydroxylated products, but phase II metabolites were detected from 4,4'-difluorobiphenyl only.

The amelioration of biofouling in industrial processing equipment is critical for performance and reliability. While conventional biocides are effective in biofouling control, they are potentially hazardous to the environment and in some cases corrosive to materials. Enzymatic approaches have been shown to be effective and can overcome the disadvantages of traditional biocides, however they are typically uneconomic for routine biofouling control. The aim of this study was to design a robust and reusable enzyme‐functionalized nano‐bead system having biofilm dispersion properties. This work describes the biochemical covalent functionalization of silica‐based nanobeads (hereafter referred to as Si‐NanoB) with Proteinase K (PK). Results showed that PK‐functionalized Si‐NanoB are effective in dispersing both protein‐based model biofilms and structurally altering Pseudomonas fluorescens biofilms, with significant decreases in surface coverage and thickness of 30.1% and 38.85%, respectively, while increasing surface roughness by 19 % following 24 h treatments on bacterial biofilms. This study shows that enzyme‐functionalized nanobeads may potentially be an environmentally friendly and cost effective alternative to pure enzyme and chemical treatments. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 501–512. © 2015 The Authors. Biotechnology and Bioengineering Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Fungi belonging to the genus Cunninghamella have enzymes similar to those employed by mammals for the detoxification of xenobiotics, thus they are useful as models of mammalian drug metabolism, and as a source for drug metabolites. We report the transformation of the anti-cancer drug flutamide in Cunninghamella sp. The most predominant phase I metabolites present in the plasma of humans, 2-hydroxyflutamide and 4-nitro-3-(trifluoromethyl)aniline, were also produced in Cunninghamella cultures. Other phase I and phase II metabolites were also detected using a combination of HPLC, GC-MS and (19)F-NMR.