Paramutation involves homologous sequence communication that leads to meiotically heritable transcriptional silencing. We demonstrate that mop2 (mediator of paramutation2), which alters paramutation at multiple loci, encodes a gene similar to Arabidopsis NRPD2/E2, the second-largest subunit of plant-specific RNA polymerases IV and V. In Arabidopsis, Pol-IV and Pol-V play major roles in RNA–mediated silencing and a single second-largest subunit is shared between Pol-IV and Pol-V. Maize encodes three second-largest subunit genes: all three genes potentially encode full length proteins with highly conserved polymerase domains, and each are expressed in multiple overlapping tissues. The isolation of a recessive paramutation mutation in mop2 from a forward genetic screen suggests limited or no functional redundancy of these three genes. Potential alternative Pol-IV/Pol-V–like complexes could provide maize with a greater diversification of RNA–mediated transcriptional silencing machinery relative to Arabidopsis. Mop2-1 disrupts paramutation at multiple loci when heterozygous, whereas previously silenced alleles are only up-regulated when Mop2-1 is homozygous. The dramatic reduction in b1 tandem repeat siRNAs, but no disruption of silencing in Mop2-1 heterozygotes, suggests the major role for tandem repeat siRNAs is not to maintain silencing. Instead, we hypothesize the tandem repeat siRNAs mediate the establishment of the heritable silent state—a process fully disrupted in Mop2-1 heterozygotes. The dominant Mop2-1 mutation, which has a single nucleotide change in a domain highly conserved among all polymerases (E. coli to eukaryotes), disrupts both siRNA biogenesis (Pol-IV–like) and potentially processes downstream (Pol-V–like). These results suggest either the wild-type protein is a subunit in both complexes or the dominant mutant protein disrupts both complexes. Dominant mutations in the same domain in E. coli RNA polymerase suggest a model for Mop2-1 dominance: complexes containing Mop2-1 subunits are non-functional and compete with wild-type complexes.

Teosinte, the probable progenitor of maize, has kernels that are encased in hardened fruitcases, which interfere with the use of the kernels as food. Although the components of the fruitcase are present in maize, their development is disrupted so that the kernels are not encased as in teosinte but exposed on the ear. The change from encased to exposed kernels represents a key step in maize evolution. The locus that largely controls this morphological difference between maize and teosinte, teosinte glume architecture 1, is described and genetically mapped.

Paramutation is the directed, heritable alteration of the expression of one allele when heterozygous with another allele. Here, the isolation and characterization of a mutation affecting paramutation, mediator of paramutation1-1 ( mop1-1 ), are described. Experiments demonstrate that the wild-type gene Mop1 is required for establishment and maintenance of the paramutant state. The mop1-1 mutation affects paramutation at the multiple loci tested but has no effect on alleles that do not participate in paramutation. The mutation does not alter the amounts of actin and ubiquitin transcripts, which suggests that the mop1 gene does not encode a global repressor. Maize plants homozygous for mop1-1 can have pleiotropic developmental defects, suggesting that mop1-1 may affect more genes than just the known paramutant ones. The mop1-1 mutation does not alter the extent of DNA methylation in rDNA and centromeric repeats. The observation that mop1 affects paramutation at multiple loci, despite major differences between these loci in their gene structure, correlations with DNA methylation, and stability of the paramutant state, suggests that a common mechanism underlies paramutation. A protein-based epigenetic model for paramutation is discussed. INTRODUCTIONRecognition of the widespread nature and importance of epigenetic phenomena in many organisms has prompted extensive review (see Cell Vol. 93, No. 2; Trends in Genetics Vol. 13, No. 8; Plant Molecular Biology Vol. 43, No. 2/3). Epigenetics refers to altered gene expression associated with alternative chromatin or methylation states (or both) superimposed on an unchanged primary DNA sequence. Alternative epigenetic states are frequently heritable through mitosis (Holliday et al., 1996;Pirrotta, 1997;Sherman and Pillus, 1997) and sometimes through meiosis (Jorgensen, 1995;Grewal and Klar, 1996;Cavalli and Paro, 1998;. Epigenetic modifications are often attributed to trans -sensing or homology effects (Henikoff and Comai, 1998;Wu and Morris, 1999). Some of the earliest examples of epigenetic phenomena were identified by pigment variegation in maize and Drosophila (Muller, 1930;Hinton and Goodsmith, 1950;Baker, 1953, Brink, 1956McClintock, 1957;Hessler, 1958;Coe, 1959).Anthocyanin pigmentation is a valuable tool in plants for identifying and tracking genetic and epigenetic events (Dooner et al., 1991;Meyer, 1995). The amount of the nonessential anthocyanins present is very sensitive to subtle changes in expression of the regulatory genes, and these differences are readily visible. In maize, these genes were used by Barbara McClintock to identify and follow the behavior of transposable elements (reviewed in Fedoroff, 1983) and by Alexander Brink and several researchers since to identify and characterize a phenomenon Brink (1958Brink ( , 1973 termed paramutation. More recently, the first examples of cosuppression-transgene silencing of a homologous endogenous gene-were identified by using anthocyanin genes in petunia (Napoli et al., 1990;van der Krol et al., 1990).Paramutat...

Paramutation generates heritable changes affecting regulation of specific alleles found at several Zea mays (maize) loci that encode transcriptional regulators of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes. Although the direction and extent of paramutation is influenced by poorly understood allelic interactions occurring in diploid sporophytes, two required to maintain repression loci (rmr1 and rmr2), as well as mediator of paramutation1 (mop1), affect this process at the purple plant1 (pl1) locus. Here we show that the rmr6 locus is required for faithful transmission of weakly expressed paramutant states previously established at both pl1 and red1 (r1) loci. Transcriptional repression occurring at both pl1 and booster1 (b1) loci as a result of paramutation also requires Rmr6 action. Reversions to highly expressed, nonparamutant states at both r1 and pl1 occur in plants homozygous for rmr6 mutations. Pedigree analysis of reverted pl1 alleles reveals variable latent susceptibilities to spontaneous paramutation in future generations, suggesting a quantitative nature of Rmr6-based alterations. Genetic tests demonstrate that Rmr6 encodes a common component required for establishing paramutations at diverse maize loci. Our analyses at pl1 and r1 suggest that this establishment requires Rmr6-dependent somatic maintenance of meiotically heritable epigenetic marks.

Paramutation is the directed, heritable alteration of the expression of one allele when heterozygous with another allele. Here, the isolation and characterization of a mutation affecting paramutation, mediator of paramutation1-1 (mop1-1), are described. Experiments demonstrate that the wild-type gene Mop1 is required for establishment and maintenance of the paramutant state. The mop1-1 mutation affects paramutation at the multiple loci tested but has no effect on alleles that do not participate in paramutation. The mutation does not alter the amounts of actin and ubiquitin transcripts, which suggests that the mop1 gene does not encode a global repressor. Maize plants homozygous for mop1-1 can have pleiotropic developmental defects, suggesting that mop1-1 may affect more genes than just the known paramutant ones. The mop1-1 mutation does not alter the extent of DNA methylation in rDNA and centromeric repeats. The observation that mop1 affects paramutation at multiple loci, despite major differences between these loci in their gene structure, correlations with DNA methylation, and stability of the paramutant state, suggests that a common mechanism underlies paramutation. A protein-based epigenetic model for paramutation is discussed.

A maize embryo having the nuclear constitution of a reduced gametophyte cell is produced in 3 percent of the embryo sacs of inbred strain Wisconsin-23 that carry the mutant indeterminate gametophyte (ig). The nucleus of most monoploid sporophytes so derived is paternal. Such androgenetic monoploids may originate from a sperm nucleus acting in conjunction with the cytoplasm of a maternal cell from which the nucleus has been functionally displaced.

Communicated by E.S.Coen R-r controls the production of anthocyanin pigment in plant parts and the aleurone layer of seeds through the production of a family of related transcriptional activating proteins of the helix-loop-helix type. The R-r complex comprises a series of repeated, homologous components arranged in both direct and inverted orientations. These include the P component, a simple R gene that confers pigmentation of plant parts, and the S subcomplex that consists of a truncated inactive R gene called q, and two functional R genes, SI and S2, that pigment the aleurone. The S genes are arranged in an unusual inverted head-to-head orientation. The identity of each functional component was confirmed by microprojectile bombardment of intact maize tissues with cloned genomic DNA and by analysis of in vivo mRNA populations. Sequence analysis suggests that the S subcomplex was derived through the rearrangement of a simple P-like progenitor element. At the rearrangement breakpoints, features typical of the CACTA family of transposable elements were found. The location and arrangement of these CACTA element sequences implies that this element may have mediated the chromosomal rearrangements that led to the formation of the R-r complex. The unusual structure of R-r explains much of the meiotic instability of the complex.

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