Obtaining reliable welfare outcome measures from commercial farms can be challenging. We developed a training programme to train observers to score injuries of the tarsal joint, carpal joint and neck on dairy cows as part of an on-farm study. Twelve trainees were trained using protocols and photographs in a classroom session and on-farm visits. Continued repeatability checking was carried out during a refresher and midway assessment. Two trainers were used as the reference standard to which all trainees were compared. The study demonstrated that methods of scoring tarsal joint, carpal joint and neck injury can be learned by trainees from different backgrounds and high repeatability can be achieved and maintained at a very large regional or national level. Successful learning of injury scoring is dependent on protocols with strong definitions and photographs as well as repetitive training sessions. Additionally, continued repeatability checks are essential to ensure the reference standard continues to be met. This training programme can be used as a model to successfully train on-farm assessors.

Injuries are a widespread problem in the dairy industry. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of and explore the animal-based and environmental factors associated with hock, knee, and neck injuries on dairy cows in freestall housing in Ontario and Alberta, Canada. Freestall dairy farms in the provinces of Ontario (n=40) and Alberta (n=50) were visited for cross-sectional data collection. A purposive sample of 40 lactating Holstein cows was selected for detailed observation on each farm. Cows were scored for hock, knee, and neck injuries on a 3- or 4-point scale, combining the attributes of hair loss, broken skin, and swelling and with a higher score indicating a more severe injury. The highest hock and highest knee score were used in the analysis. Animal-based and environmental measures were taken to explore which factors were associated with injury. Overall, the prevalence of cows with at least one hock, knee, and neck injury was 47, 24, and 9%, respectively. Lame cows had a greater odds of hock injury [odds ratio (OR)=1.46] than nonlame cows, whereas cows with fewer days in milk (DIM) had reduced odds of hock injury compared with those >120 DIM (OR=0.47, 0.64, and 0.81 for <50, 50-82, and 83-120 DIM, respectively). The odds of hock injury was lower on sand (OR=0.07) and concrete (OR=0.44) stall bases in comparison to mattresses. Conversely, the odds of knee injury was greater on concrete (OR=3.19) stall bases compared with mattresses. Cows in parity 1 (OR=0.45 and 0.27 for knee and neck injury, respectively) and 2 (OR=0.49 and 0.40 for knee and neck injury, respectively) had lower odds of knee and neck injury compared with cows in parity 4+. Low feed rail heights increased the odds of neck injury (OR=76.71 for rails between 128 and 140 cm and OR=43.82 for rails ≤128 cm). The odds of knee injury was greater on farms where any cows were observed slipping or falling when moving into the holding area for milking (OR=2.69) and lower on farms with rubber flooring in the alley along the feed bunk compared with bare concrete floors (OR=0.19). These results demonstrate that individual animal characteristics, as well as barn design and animal management, are associated with hock, knee, and neck injuries. These data can help to guide investigations into causes and prevention of injuries.

A body condition score (BCS) in dairy cattle is a subjective assessment of the proportion of body fat that she possesses and is a common measure used in animal welfare assessment. The objectives of our study were to develop and implement a training program to produce highly repeatable BCS by many assessors as part of a cross-Canada epidemiological study on dairy cow comfort and welfare. In preliminary studies, we established that without any proper standard operating procedures (SOP) to describe the practical steps of the process and good standard reference for each score, assessors provided with a BCS chart scored with each other only with substantial agreement within 0.5 points and moderate agreement on exact score (mean weighted kappa coefficient=0.79 and 0.46, respectively). Detailed SOP were developed to assess BCS in 4 locations on a dairy farm. Assessing BCS presented more challenges in some locations (when cows exited the milking parlor, when the assessor was located outside the freestall pen) than others (when cows were headlocked at the feed bunk, when assessor was located inside the freestall pen). Additionally, training material and a training procedure were developed to ensure that future assessors would achieve almost perfect repeatability with the trainer within 0.5 points (weighted kappa coefficient >0.80). Twelve trainees followed this training and their repeatability was assessed using photographs in classroom sessions and live observations on farm over a 1-wk period. Repeatability was maintained above target agreement at periodic checks over the 6 mo of on-farm data collection. Two trainers were used as a reference standard to which all trainees were compared. This study demonstrates that to obtain reliable measures, a training program must include validated procedures to help assessors cope with a variety of farm setups. Regular repeatability checks are essential to ensure that the reference standard is maintained over time and to secure high data quality. This method to develop a training program as well as the training program implemented can be used as a model to successfully train on-farm assessors.

Mastitis is a frequent and painful disease in dairy cows. However, pain detection and alleviation in mastitic cows has been overlooked. The objectives of this study were to measure behavioral changes in dairy cows with clinical mastitis and to investigate the effect of intramammary infusion of an antibiotic on lying behavior and behavior during milking. In experiment 1, 42 lactating cows were used: 14 mastitic cows and 28 control cows. Mastitic and control cows were subjected to an evaluation of pain responses on d 1 (mastitis detection day), and 2, 3, and 7d after the last antibiotic treatment (d 10+). The antibiotic treatment was administered to mastitic cows twice a day, starting on d 1, for at least 3 consecutive days. Behavioral changes were evaluated by measuring lying behavior, reactivity during milking (stepping, lifting, and kicking), weight distribution, and hock-to-hock distance. Overall, mastitic cows spent less time lying down on d 2 compared with control cows. The percentage of time lying on the mastitic quarter side did not differ significantly between mastitic and control cows. No differences were observed between control and mastitic cows on the number of steps per 24h on each day. Restless behavior during milking did not differ between treatments. Restless behaviors differed significantly within mastitic cows between days. Frequency of kicks per minute was higher on d 1 compared with d 2, frequency of lifts was higher on d 1 and 2 compared with d 10+, and frequency of steps was higher on d 2 compared with d 10+. The variability of weight that mastitic cows applied to the leg on the mastitic quarter side was higher on d 1 than on d 10+. For control cows, the variability in weight applied to the homologous leg of the mastitic quarter side leg was higher on d 1 compared with d 2 and 3. The hock-to-hock distance did not differ between treatments. Mild clinical mastitis might not cause sufficient pain to observe marked changes in behaviors. However, cows showed differences in lying time and reactivity during milking and slight differences in the laterality of lying. To further develop methodologies for assessing pain in mastitic cows, it is worth applying the methodologies used in this study to cows with moderate to severe mastitis, followed by their validation using analgesic treatment, to ensure that any change is a pain-specific behavior rather than a simple reflex. In experiment 2, no effect of intramammary infusion of the antibiotic was observed on lying behavior or behavior during milking. Cows with mild clinical mastitis present behavioral changes in lying behavior and at milking time, which could be associated with discomfort.

Effective management and an appropriate environment are essential for dairy cattle health and welfare. Codes of practice provide dairy producers with best practice guidance for the care and handling of their cattle. New Canadian recommendations have been established for the dairy industry. The objectives of this study were to develop an on-farm assessment tool that helps producers assess how well they are meeting their code of practice and that identifies management and environment modifications that could improve dairy cow comfort on their farms. The assessment tool addressed critical areas of dairy cow comfort, including accommodation and housing (stall design, space allowance, stall management, pen management, milking parlor, and transfer alleys), feed and water (body condition scoring, nutrition), and health and welfare (lameness, claw health, and hoof-trimming). Targets of good practices were identified from the requirements and recommendations of the code of practice. Each farm received a score for each target, ranging from 0 (target not reached) to 100 (target reached). One hundred tiestall and 110 freestall farms were surveyed in 3 provinces of Canada (Quebec, Ontario, and Alberta). The duration of the assessment, in 2 visits lasting, on average, 8 and 9h (range between freestall and tiestall farms) and 4 and 4.1h, was beyond the targeted 3 to 4h due mainly to the animal-based measures; strategies to reduce the duration of the assessment were discussed. Standard operating procedures were developed to ensure consistency in measuring and recording data. Periodical checks were conducted by trainers to ensure all 15 assessors remained above target agreement of weighted kappa ≥0.6. Average scores for all critical areas ranged from 25 to 89% for freestall farms and from 48 to 95% for tiestall farms. These scores need to be considered with caution when comparing farms because scores could not always be calculated the same way between housing systems. An evaluation report was provided and discussed with each producer, identifying strengths and areas for improvement that could benefit dairy cow comfort on their farms. The producers were convinced of the effectiveness of our tool for assessing cow comfort (freestall: 86%; tiestall: 95%) and in assisting them to make decisions for improvements (freestall: 83%; tiestall: 93%). Our cow comfort assessment tool served as background material for the Dairy Farmers of Canada animal care assessment program.