DNA damage and repair are linked to cancer. DNA damage that is induced endogenously or from exogenous sources has the potential to result in mutations and genomic instability if not properly repaired, eventually leading to cancer. Inflammation is also linked to cancer. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONs) produced by inflammatory cells at sites of infection can induce DNA damage. RONs can also amplify inflammatory responses, leading to increased DNA damage. Here, we focus on the links between DNA damage, repair, and inflammation, as they relate to cancer. We examine the interplay between chronic inflammation, DNA damage and repair and review recent findings in this rapidly emerging field, including the links between DNA damage and the innate immune system, and the roles of inflammation in altering the microbiome, which subsequently leads to the induction of DNA damage in the colon. Mouse models of defective DNA repair and inflammatory control are extensively reviewed, including treatment of mouse models with pathogens, which leads to DNA damage. The roles of microRNAs in regulating inflammation and DNA repair are discussed. Importantly, DNA repair and inflammation are linked in many important ways, and in some cases balance each other to maintain homeostasis. The failure to repair DNA damage or to control inflammatory responses has the potential to lead to cancer.

miR-155 is a prominent microRNA (miRNA) that regulates genes involved in immunity and cancer-related pathways. miR-155 is overexpressed in lung cancer, which correlates with poor patient prognosis. It is unclear how miR-155 becomes increased in lung cancers and how this increase contributes to reduced patient survival. Here, we show that hypoxic conditions induce miR-155 expression in lung cancer cells and trigger a corresponding decrease in a validated target, FOXO3A. Furthermore, we find that increased levels of miR-155 radioprotects lung cancer cells, while inhibition of miR-155 radiosensitizes these cells. Moreover, we reveal a therapeutically important link between miR-155 expression, hypoxia, and irradiation by demonstrating that anti-miR-155 molecules also sensitize hypoxic lung cancer cells to irradiation. Our study helps explain how miR-155 becomes elevated in lung cancers, which contain extensive hypoxic microenvironments, and demonstrates that inhibition of miR-155 may have important therapeutic potential as a means to radiosensitize hypoxic lung cancer cells.

Significance: microRNAs (miRNA) have been characterized as master regulators of the genome. As such, miRNAs are responsible for regulating almost every cellular pathway, including the DNA damage response (DDR) after ionizing radiation (IR). IR is a therapeutic tool that is used for the treatment of several types of cancer, yet the mechanism behind radiation response is not fully understood. Recent Advances: It has been demonstrated that IR can alter miRNA expression profiles, varying greatly from one cell type to the next. It is possible that this variation contributes to the range of tumor cell responsiveness that is observed after radiotherapy, especially considering the extensive role for miRNAs in regulating the DDR. In addition, individual miRNAs or miRNA families have been shown to play a multifaceted role in the DDR, regulating multiple members in a single pathway. Critical Issues: In this review, we will discuss the effects of radiation on miRNA expression as well as explore the function of miRNAs in regulating the cellular response to radiation-induced damage. We will discuss the importance of miRNA regulation at each stage of the DDR, including signal transduction, DNA damage sensing, cell cycle checkpoint activation, DNA double-strand break repair, and apoptosis. We will focus on emphasizing the importance of a single miRNA targeting several mediators within a pathway. Future Directions: miRNAs will continue to emerge as critical regulators of the DDR. Understanding the role of miRNAs in the response to IR will provide insights for improving the current standard therapy. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 21, 293-312.

Escherichia coli DNA photolyase and cryptochrome 1 isolated from Vibrio cholerae, a member of the CRY-DASH family, are directly compared using a variety of experimental methods including UV-vis and Raman spectroscopy, reduction potential measurements, and isothermal titration calorimetry. The semiquinone form of the cryptochrome has an absorption spectrum that is red-shifted from that of the photolyase, but the Raman spectrum indicates that the FAD binding pocket is similar to that of photolyase. The FADH(-)/FADH* reduction potential of the cryptochrome is significantly higher than that of the photolyase at 164 mV vs NHE, but it also increases upon substrate binding (to 195 mV vs NHE), an increase similar to what is observed in photolyase. The FADH(-)/FADH* reduction potential for both proteins was found to be insensitive to ATP binding. Isothermal titration calorimetry found that photolyase binds tighter to substrate (K(A) approximately 10(5) M(-1) for photolyase and approximately 10(4) M(-1) for cryptochrome 1), and the binding constants for both proteins were slightly sensitive to oxidation state. Based upon this work, it appears that this cryptochrome has significant spectroscopic and electrochemical similarities to CPD photolyase. The thermodynamic cycle of the enzymatic repair in the context of this work is discussed.

miR-155 is an oncogenic microRNA (miR) that is often over-expressed in cancer and is associated with poor prognosis. miR-155 can target several DNA repair factors including RAD51, MLH1, and MSH6, and its over-expression results in an increased mutation frequency in vitro, although the mechanism has yet to be fully understood. Here, we demonstrate that over-expression of miR-155 drives an increased mutation frequency both in vitro and in vivo, promoting genomic instability by affecting multiple DNA repair pathways. miR-155 over-expression causes a decrease in homologous recombination, but yields a concurrent increase in the error-prone non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway. Despite repressing established targets MLH1 and MSH6, the identified mutation pattern upon miR-155 over-expression does not resemble that of a mismatch repair-deficient background. Further investigation revealed that all four subunits of polymerase delta, a high-fidelity DNA replication and repair polymerase, are down-regulated at the mRNA level in the context of miR-155 over-expression. FOXO3a, a transcription factor and known target of miR-155, has one or more putative binding site(s) in the promoter of all four polymerase delta subunits. Finally, suppression of FOXO3a by miR-155 or by siRNA knockdown is sufficient to repress the expression of the catalytic subunit of polymerase delta, POLD1, at the protein level, indicating that FOXO3a contributes to the regulation of polymerase delta levels.

Aberrant expression of microRNAs has been correlated with the initiation and progression of many diseases. One such microRNA, miR-155, is an oncogenic microRNA that has been associated with several different types of cancer, including lung, breast, and lymphoma. We are studying the role of miR-155 in promoting hypoxia-driven tumor phenotypes such as therapy resistance and genomic instability. Previously, we have shown that miR-155 expression is induced under hypoxic conditions and that over-expression of miR-155 under normal oxygen conditions confers resistance to ionizing radiation therapy. Additionally, we have shown that by knocking down expression of miR-155 under hypoxic conditions, we were able to sensitize these cells to ionizing radiation. Here, we demonstrate that miR-155 expression is tightly linked to genomic instability, another characteristic of hypoxia. We have found that over-expression of miR-155 drives increased mutation frequency as measured by a mutation reporter assay screen both in vitro and in vivo. These results are consistent with a recent finding that miR-155 over-expression targets mismatch repair proteins, MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6. An increase in mutation frequency could be due to a decrease in mismatch repair function. Surprisingly, we have also found that loss of miR-155 increases the baseline level of double strand breaks observed in a fibroblast cell line. Taken together, this data suggests that a finite regulation of miR-155 is necessary to maintain cellular homeostasis. Our goal is to gain a better understanding of the role of miR-155 in promoting hypoxic cancer cell survival. Citation Format: Jennifer Czochor, Peter M. Glazer. Characterizing the regulation and function of miR-155 in hypoxia biology. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 977. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-977

<p>Validation of DSB repair assays.</p>

<p>Mutation pattern remains unchanged upon miR-155 over-expression in vivo.</p>