Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a severe public health problem and are caused by a range of pathogens, but most commonly by Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. High recurrence rates and increasing antimicrobial resistance among uropathogens threaten to greatly increase the economic burden of these infections. In this Review, we discuss how basic science studies are elucidating the molecular details of the crosstalk that occurs at the host–pathogen interface, as well as the consequences of these interactions for the pathophysiology of UTIs. We also describe current efforts to translate this knowledge into new clinical treatments for UTIs.

Curli are functional extracellular amyloid fibers produced by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) and other Enterobacteriaceae. Ring-fused 2-pyridones, such as FN075 and BibC6, inhibited curli biogenesis in UPEC and prevented the in vitro polymerization of the major curli subunit protein CsgA. The curlicides FN075 and BibC6 share a common chemical lineage with other ring-fused 2-pyridones termed pilicides. Pilicides inhibit the assembly of type 1 pili, which are required for pathogenesis during urinary tract infection. Notably, the curlicides retained pilicide activities and inhibited both curli-dependent and type 1-dependent biofilms. Furthermore, pretreatment of UPEC with FN075 significantly attenuated virulence in a mouse model of urinary tract infection. Curli and type 1 pili exhibited exclusive and independent roles in promoting UPEC biofilms, and curli provided a fitness advantage in vivo. Thus, the ability of FN075 to block the biogenesis of both curli and type 1 pili endows unique anti-biofilm and anti-virulence activities on these compounds.Bacterial biofilms are complex microbial communities that exhibit reduced sensitivity to conventional antibiotics, host defenses and external stresses 1,2 . Multiple determinants contribute to biofilm development and maintenance, and their requirements in biofilm formation may vary depending on environmental conditions. In addition, factors important in

Bacterial pathogens are frequently distinguished by the presence of acquired genes associated with iron acquisition. The presence of specific siderophore receptor genes, however, does not reliably predict activity of the complex protein assemblies involved in synthesis and transport of these secondary metabolites. Here, we have developed a novel quantitative metabolomic approach based on stable isotope dilution to compare the complement of siderophores produced by Escherichia coli strains associated with intestinal colonization or urinary tract disease. Because uropathogenic E. coli are believed to reside in the gut microbiome prior to infection, we compared siderophore production between urinary and rectal isolates within individual patients with recurrent UTI. While all strains produced enterobactin, strong preferential expression of the siderophores yersiniabactin and salmochelin was observed among urinary strains. Conventional PCR genotyping of siderophore receptors was often insensitive to these differences. A linearized enterobactin siderophore was also identified as a product of strains with an active salmochelin gene cluster. These findings argue that qualitative and quantitative epi-genetic optimization occurs in the E. coli secondary metabolome among human uropathogens. Because the virulence-associated biosynthetic pathways are distinct from those associated with rectal colonization, these results suggest strategies for virulence-targeted therapies.

FimH, the type 1 pilus adhesin of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), contains a receptor-binding domain with an acidic binding pocket specific for mannose. The fim operon, and thus type 1 pilus production, is under transcriptional control via phase variation of an invertible promoter element. FimH is critical during urinary tract infection for mediating colonization and invasion of the bladder epithelium and establishment of intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs). In silico analysis of FimH gene sequences from 279 E. coli strains identified specific amino acids evolving under positive selection outside of its mannose-binding pocket. Mutating two of these residues (A27V/V163A) had no effect on phase variation, pilus assembly, or mannose binding in vitro. However, compared to wild-type, this double mutant strain exhibited a 10,000-fold reduction in mouse bladder colonization 24 h after inoculation and was unable to form IBCs even though it bound normally to mannosylated receptors in the urothelium. In contrast, the single A62S mutation altered phase variation, reducing the proportion of piliated cells, reduced mannose binding 8-fold, and decreased bladder colonization 30-fold in vivo compared to wild-type. A phase-locked ON A62S mutant restored virulence to wild-type levels even though in vitro mannose binding remained impaired. Thus, positive selection analysis of FimH has separated mannose binding from in vivo fitness, suggesting that IBC formation is critical for successful infection of the mammalian bladder, providing support for more general use of in silico positive selection analysis to define the molecular underpinnings of bacterial pathogenesis.type 1 pili ͉ uropathogenic Escherichia coli

Klebsiella pneumoniae is an important cause of urinary tract infection (UTI), but little is known about its pathogenesis in vivo. The pathogenesis of the K. pneumoniae cystitis isolate TOP52 was compared to that of the uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) isolate UTI89 in a murine cystitis model. Bladder and kidney titers of TOP52 were lower than those of UTI89 at early time points but similar at later time points. TOP52, like UTI89, formed biofilm-like intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs) within the murine bladder, albeit at significantly lower levels than UTI89. Additionally, filamentation of TOP52 was observed, a process critical for UTI89 evasion of neutrophil phagocytosis and persistence in the bladder. Thus, the IBC pathway is not specific to UPEC alone. We investigated if differences in type 1 pilus expression may explain TOP52's early defect in vivo. The type 1 pilus operon is controlled by recombinase-mediated (fimE, fimB, and fimX) phase variation of an invertible promoter element. We found that K. pneumoniae carries an extra gene of unknown function at the 3 end of its type 1 operon, fimK, and the genome lacks the recombinase fimX. A deletion mutant of fimK was constructed, and TOP52 ⌬fimK had higher titers and formed more IBCs in the murine cystitis model than wild type. The loss of fimK or expression of E. coli fimX from a plasmid in TOP52 resulted in a larger phase-ON population and higher expression levels of type 1 pili and gave TOP52 the ability to form type 1-dependent biofilms. Complementation with pfimK decreased type 1 pilus expression and biofilm formation of TOP52 ⌬fimK and decreased UTI89 biofilm formation. Thus, K. pneumoniae appears programmed for minimal expression of type 1 pili, which may explain, in part, why K. pneumoniae is a less prevalent etiologic agent of UTI than UPEC.Nearly 13 million women get urinary tract infections (UTIs) per year in the United States alone, and more than half of all women will experience a UTI during their lifetimes (16,23,28,29,52). These infections often recur, and over half of all recurrent episodes are caused by the same bacterial strain as the initial infection (17, 54). Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the most common etiologic agent, responsible for 80 to 85% of community-acquired UTIs (51). However, there are several other significant uropathogens; including Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus mirabilis (49).K. pneumoniae causes up to 5% of community-acquired UTIs and is significantly more common in diabetic patients and in the nosocomial setting (26,36,50). The urinary tract is the most common site of Klebsiella infection, although it may be better recognized as a cause of pneumonia in compromised hosts (7). Over the past 25 years, there has been a substantial increase in the spread of drug-resistant strains of Klebsiella, particularly those producing extended-spectrum ␤-lactamases (42). K. pneumoniae encodes type 1 pili, and its corresponding fim operon is highly homologous to that of E. coli (14,22)...

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an emerging cause of catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI), which frequently progresses to more serious invasive infections. We adapted a mouse model of CAUTI to investigate how catheterization increases an individual's susceptibility to MRSA UTI. This analysis revealed that catheterization was required for MRSA to achieve high-level, persistent infection in the bladder. As shown previously, catheter placement induced an inflammatory response resulting in the release of the host protein fibrinogen (Fg), which coated the bladder and implant. Following infection, we showed that MRSA attached to the urothelium and implant in patterns that colocalized with deposited Fg. Furthermore, MRSA exacerbated the host inflammatory response to stimulate the additional release and accumulation of Fg in the urinary tract, which facilitated MRSA colonization. Consistent with this model, analysis of catheters from patients with S. aureus-positive cultures revealed colocalization of Fg, which was deposited on the catheter, with S. aureus. Clumping Factors A and B (ClfA and ClfB) have been shown to contribute to MRSA-Fg interactions in other models of disease. We found that mutants in clfA had significantly greater Fg-binding defects than mutants in clfB in several in vitro assays. Paradoxically, only the ClfB − strain was significantly attenuated in the CAUTI model. Together, these data suggest that catheterization alters the urinary tract environment to promote MRSA CAUTI pathogenesis by inducing the release of Fg, which the pathogen enhances to persist in the urinary tract despite the host's robust immune response.host-pathogen interactions | MRSA CAUTI | ClfB-fibrinogen interactions

Summary The transitional epithelium of the bladder normally turns over slowly but, upon injury, undergoes rapid regeneration, fueled by basal uroepithelial stem and/or early progenitor cells (USCs). Little is known about the mechanisms underlying the injury response. Here, we investigate the mechanism of bladder epithelial regeneration in response to infection with uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC). We show that infection resulted in rapid sloughing of superficial cells, a marked inflammatory response, and a substantial spike in basal cell proliferation. Epithelial renewal following infectious injury was mediated in part by Bmp signaling. In mice with Cre-recombinase-mediated ablation of the Bmp4 receptor, Bmpr1a, infection leads to aberrant urothelial renewal resulting in a block in USC differentiation into superficial cells. The response to chemical injury with protamine sulfate (PS) also caused sloughing but no inflammation or USC activation. Together, our study indicates that UPEC infection activates the USC niche, and Bmp signaling is required for regulation of the USC response to infection.

# These authors contributed equally to this work. AbstractPurpose-Catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI) account for ~40% of all hospitalacquired infections worldwide, with more than one million cases diagnosed annually. Recent data from a CAUTI animal model has shown that inflammation induced by catheterization releases host fibrinogen that accumulates on the catheter. Further, Enterococcus faecalis catheter colonization was found to be dependent on EbpA, a fibrinogen binding adhesin. We sought to evaluate this mechanism in a human model. Materials and methods-Urinary catheters were collected from human subjects hospitalized for surgical or non-surgical urologic procedures. Catheters were subjected to immunofluorescence analyses by incubating them with anti-fibrinogen antibody and then stained for fluorescence. The fluorescence intensity was compared to standard catheters. Catheters were incubated with strains of Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, or Candida to assess their binding to fibrinogenladen catheters.Results-Fifty catheters were collected after various surgical and urological procedures. In vivo dwell time ranged from 1 hour to 59 days. All catheters had fibrinogen deposition and its accumulation was dependent on dwell time but not on surgical procedure or catheter material. Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. Conflicts of interest: No author has any conflicts of interest to disclose HHS Public Access Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptAuthor Manuscript Author ManuscriptCatheters were probed ex vivo with E. faecalis, S. aureus, and Candida albicans, which bound to catheters only in those regions where fibrinogen was deposited.Conclusions-Taken together, these data show that urinary catheters act as a binding surface for accumulation of fibrinogen, which is released due to inflammation resulting from a urological procedure or from catheter placement, creating a niche that can be exploited by uropathogens to cause CAUTI.