Macroalgal blooms arc produced by nutrient enrichment of estuaries in which the sea floor lies within the photic zone. We review fcaturcs of macroalgal blooms pointed out in recent literature and summarize work done in the Waquoit Bay Land Margin Ecosystems Research project which suggests that nutrient loads, water residcncc times, presence of fringing salt marshes, and grazing affect macroalgal blooms.Increases in nitrogen supply raise macroalgal N uptake rates, N contents of tissues, photosynthesis-irradiance curves and P,,,.,, and accelerate growth of fronds. The resulting increase in macroalgal biomass is the macroalgal bloom, which can displace other estuarine producers, Fringing marshes and brief water residence impair the intensity of macroalgal blooms. Grazing pressure may control blooms of palatable macroalgac, but only at lower N loading rates. Macroalgal blooms end when growth of the phytoplankton attenuates irradiation reaching the bottom. In cstuarics with brief water rcsidencc times, phytoplankton may not have enough time to grow and shade macrophytcs. High phytoplankton division rates achieved at high nutrient concentrations may compensate for the brief time to divide before cells arc transported out of the estuary.Increased N loads and associated macroalgal blooms pervasively and fundamentally alter estuarinc ecosystems. Macroalgae intercept nutrients regenerated from sediments and thus uncoupIe biogeochemical sedimentary cycles from those in the water column. Macroalgae take up so much N that water quality seen:? high even where N loads are high. Macroalgal C moves more readily through microbial and consumer food webs than C derived from seagrasscs that were replaced by macroalgae. Macroalgae dominate 0, profiles of the water columns of shallow estuaries and thus alter the biogeochemistry of the sediments. Marc frequent hypoxia and habitat changes associated with macroalgal blooms also changes the abundance of bcnthic fauna in affected estuaries.Approaches to rcmediation of the many pervasive cffccts of macroalgal blooms riced to include interception of nutrients at their watcrshcd sources and perhaps removal by harvest of macroalgae or by increased flushing. Although we have much knowledge of macroalgal dynamics, all such management initiatives will require additional information.

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Loss of eelgrass (Zostera marina) habitat from temperate estuaries worldwide often coincides with increased macroalgal accumulations resulting from increased delivery of anthropogenic nitrogen. We conducted macroalgal enclosure/exclosure experiments during summer 1998 within eelgrass populations in two estuaries of Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts, USA, to evaluate how increased macroalgal biomass affects density, recruitment, growth rate, and production of eelgrass. One estuary featured a low nitrogen loading rate and sustained a relatively pristine eelgrass population with a 2 cm high macroalgal canopy. The other estuary had a sixfold higher nitrogen loading rate and a declining eelgrass population with a 9 cm high macroalgal canopy. Experimental units were 1 ϫ 1 m plots of eelgrass fenced within 50 cm high plastic mesh that excluded or included macroalgae at canopy heights ranging from 0 to 25 cm. In both estuaries, rates of eelgrass loss increased, largely a result of decreased recruitment, and growth rates decreased (due to decreased rates of leaf appearance) with increasing macroalgal canopy height. Aboveground summer production in both estuaries decreased exponentially as macroalgal canopy heights increased. We conclude that macroalgal cover is a proximate cause for loss of eelgrass in the higher N estuary since, upon removal of macroalgae, we observed an increase in shoot density, a 55% increase in summer growth, and a 500% increase in summer aboveground net production. Based on summer growth data and density of shoots in our experimental plots the following spring, we suggest that the negative impacts of macroalgal canopies persist, but also that eelgrass recovery upon removal of macroalgae may be possible.To identify the mechanisms by which macroalgae potentially inhibit eelgrass production, we measured changes in nutrient and oxygen concentrations resulting from macroalgal canopies and estimated the relative importance of summer standing stocks of phytoplankton, epiphytes, and macroalgae to potential shading of eelgrass in both estuaries. We document both (1) unfavorable biogeochemical conditions (lowered redox conditions and potentially toxic concentrations of NH 4 ϩ ) imposed by the presence of macroalgal canopies and (2) potential light limitation of eelgrass by standing stocks of producers in the higher N estuary, with estimates of light reduction via macroalgae numerically more important than light sequestration by phytoplankton and epiphytes for newly recruiting shoots. Increased macroalgal biomass associated with increased nitrogen loading to estuaries can lead to eelgrass disappearance, and we identify an approximate 9-12-cm critical macroalgal canopy height at which eelgrass declines.

Aim\ud \ud We studied global variation in beta diversity patterns of lake macrophytes using regional data from across the world. Specifically, we examined (1) how beta diversity of aquatic macrophytes is partitioned between species turnover and nestedness within each study region, and (2) which environmental characteristics structure variation in these beta diversity components.\ud Location\ud \ud Global.\ud Methods\ud \ud We used presence–absence data for aquatic macrophytes from 21 regions distributed around the world. We calculated pairwise-site and multiple-site beta diversity among lakes within each region using Sørensen dissimilarity index and partitioned it into turnover and nestedness coefficients. Beta regression was used to correlate the diversity coefficients with regional environmental characteristics.\ud Results\ud \ud Aquatic macrophytes showed different levels of beta diversity within each of the 21 study regions, with species turnover typically accounting for the majority of beta diversity, especially in high-diversity regions. However, nestedness contributed 30–50% of total variation in macrophyte beta diversity in low-diversity regions. The most important environmental factor explaining the three beta diversity coefficients (total, species turnover and nestedness) was elevation range, followed by relative areal extent of freshwater, latitude and water alkalinity range.\ud Main conclusions\ud \ud Our findings show that global patterns in beta diversity of lake macrophytes are caused by species turnover rather than by nestedness. These patterns in beta diversity were driven by natural environmental heterogeneity, notably variability in elevation range (also related to temperature variation) among regions. In addition, a greater range in alkalinity within a region, likely amplified by human activities, was also correlated with increased macrophyte beta diversity. These findings suggest that efforts to conserve aquatic macrophyte diversity should primarily focus on regions with large numbers of lakes that exhibit broad environmental gradients

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It has been suggested that shallow lakes in warm climates have a higher probability of being turbid, rather than macrophyte dominated, compared with lakes in cooler climates, but little field evidence exists to evaluate this hypothesis. We analyzed data from 782 lake years in different climate zones in North America, South America, and Europe. We tested if systematic differences exist in the relationship between the abundance of submerged macrophytes and environmental factors such as lake depth and nutrient levels. In the pooled dataset the proportion of lakes with substantial submerged macrophyte coverage (430% of the lake area) decreased in a sigmoidal way with increasing total phosphorus (TP) concentration, falling most steeply between 0.05 and 0.2 mg L À1 . Substantial submerged macrophyte coverage was also rare in lakes with total nitrogen (TN) concentrations above 1-2 mg L À1 , except for lakes with very low TP concentrations where macrophytes remain abundant until higher TN concentrations. The deviance reduction of logistic regression models predicting macrophyte coverage from nutrients and water depth was generally low, and notably lowest in tropical and subtropical regions (Brazil, Uruguay, and Florida), suggesting that macrophyte coverage was strongly influenced by other factors. The maximum TP concentration allowing substantial submerged macrophyte coverage was clearly higher in cold regions with more frost days. This is in agreement with other studies which found a large influence of ice cover duration on shallow lakes' ecology through partial fish kills that may improve light conditions for submerged macrophytes by cascading effects on periphyton and phytoplankton. Our findings suggest that, in regions where climatic warming is projected to lead to fewer frost days, macrophyte cover will decrease unless the nutrient levels are lowered.

Loss of eelgrass (Zostera marina) habitat from temperate estuaries worldwide often coincides with increased macroalgal accumulations resulting from increased delivery of anthropogenic nitrogen. We conducted macroalgal enclosure/exclosure experiments during summer 1998 within eelgrass populations in two estuaries of Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts, USA, to evaluate how increased macroalgal biomass affects density, recruitment, growth rate, and production of eelgrass. One estuary featured a low nitrogen loading rate and sustained a relatively pristine eelgrass population with a 2 cm high macroalgal canopy. The other estuary had a sixfold higher nitrogen loading rate and a declining eelgrass population with a 9 cm high macroalgal canopy. Experimental units were 1 ϫ 1 m plots of eelgrass fenced within 50 cm high plastic mesh that excluded or included macroalgae at canopy heights ranging from 0 to 25 cm. In both estuaries, rates of eelgrass loss increased, largely a result of decreased recruitment, and growth rates decreased (due to decreased rates of leaf appearance) with increasing macroalgal canopy height. Aboveground summer production in both estuaries decreased exponentially as macroalgal canopy heights increased. We conclude that macroalgal cover is a proximate cause for loss of eelgrass in the higher N estuary since, upon removal of macroalgae, we observed an increase in shoot density, a 55% increase in summer growth, and a 500% increase in summer aboveground net production. Based on summer growth data and density of shoots in our experimental plots the following spring, we suggest that the negative impacts of macroalgal canopies persist, but also that eelgrass recovery upon removal of macroalgae may be possible.To identify the mechanisms by which macroalgae potentially inhibit eelgrass production, we measured changes in nutrient and oxygen concentrations resulting from macroalgal canopies and estimated the relative importance of summer standing stocks of phytoplankton, epiphytes, and macroalgae to potential shading of eelgrass in both estuaries. We document both (1) unfavorable biogeochemical conditions (lowered redox conditions and potentially toxic concentrations of NH 4 ϩ ) imposed by the presence of macroalgal canopies and (2) potential light limitation of eelgrass by standing stocks of producers in the higher N estuary, with estimates of light reduction via macroalgae numerically more important than light sequestration by phytoplankton and epiphytes for newly recruiting shoots. Increased macroalgal biomass associated with increased nitrogen loading to estuaries can lead to eelgrass disappearance, and we identify an approximate 9-12-cm critical macroalgal canopy height at which eelgrass declines.

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