BackgroundThe persistence and pathogenicity of pathogenic bacteria are dependent on the ability of the species to survive in adverse conditions. During the infectious process, the organism may need to pass through certain hostile anatomical sites, such as the stomach. Under various environmental stresses, many bacteria enter into the viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state, where they are ‘alive’ or metabolically active, but will not grow on conventional media. Escherichia coli bacteria encounter several diverse stress factors during their growth, survival and infection and thus may enter into the VBNC state.ObjectivesThis review discusses various general aspects of the VBNC state, the mechanisms and possible public health impact of indicator and pathogenic E. coli entering into the VBNC state.MethodA literature review was conducted to ascertain the possible impact of E. coli entering into the VBNC state.ResultsEscherichia coli enter into the VBNC state by means of several induction mechanisms. Various authors have found that E. coli can be resuscitated post-VBNC. Certain strains of pathogenic E. coli are still able to produce toxins in the VBNC state, whilst others are avirulent during the VBNC state but are able to regain virulence after resuscitation.ConclusionPathogenic and indicator E. coli entering into the VBNC state could have an adverse effect on public health if conventional detection methods are used, where the number of viable cells could be underestimated and the VBNC cells still produce toxins or could, at any time, be resuscitated and become virulent again.
Background: Continuing professional development (CPD) is important because it delivers benefits to the individual, their profession and the public. CPD increases credibility, maintains skills and knowledge to deliver a professional healthcare service. It also ensures that individuals are up to date with industry change by constantly updating their skill set, and filling in gaps in competencies and knowledge.
Objective: The objective of this brief review is to investigate whether CPD should be a necessary component in the professional work field or not.
Method: A literature review was conducted using electronic databases Science Direct, Wiley Online Library, Google Scholar, ERIC, Research Gate, African Journals Online and Emerald Insight.
Results: The results have shown that a number of barriers played a role related to the participation of professionals in CPD programmes. The barriers most professionals face which prevent them from participating in CPD are either the attitudes of professionals towards CPD or time constraints due to workload.
Conclusion: Although many barriers have been identified, the outcome was in favour of having the CPD system in the workplace.
Hand sanitizers are used as an alternative to hand washing to reduce the number of viable microorganisms when soap and water are not readily available. This study aimed to investigate the anti-bacterial effectiveness of commercially available hand sanitizers and those commonly used in healthcare and community settings. A mapping exercise was done to select and procure different hand sanitizers (n = 18) from retailers. Five microorganisms implicated in hospital-acquired infections were selected and tested against each hand sanitizer: Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Twenty-one volunteers were recruited to do a handprint before and after applying the hand sanitizer. Only four out of eighteen hand sanitizers (22%) were effective against all tested bacterial species, and an equal number (22%) were completely ineffective. Seven hand sanitizers with a label claim of 99.99% were only effective against E. coli. Only five hand sanitizers (27%) effectively reduced bacteria on participants’ hands. This study showed that only a fifth of hand sanitizers were effective against selected microorganisms. The findings raise a concern about the effectiveness of hand sanitizers and their role in infection, prevention, and control if not well regulated.
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