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overviews). In this chapter, we discuss current expectancy-value theoretical models of achievement motivation and review research based on these models. Much of this research has focused on the development of children's expectancies and values, and how expectancies and values relate to performance, choice of different activities, and emotions. We discuss the major findings from each of these areas of research. We also provide suggestions for future research based in this theory for the next decade. We focus our review and suggestions for future research primarily on elementary and secondary school students, but include some relevant work done with college students.

Drawing on expectancy-value theory, the present study examined the unique contributions of the four major value beliefs and self-concept on achievement, self-reported effort, and teacher-rated behavioral engagement in mathematics. In particular, we examined the multiplicative effects of self-concept and task values on educational outcomes using the latent moderated structural equation approach. Participants were 1,868 German ninth-grade students. The data analyses relied on a higher-order structure of value beliefs, which is suited to parsing the differential patterns of predictive relations for different value beliefs. The findings revealed that (a) self-concept was more predictive of achievement, whereas value beliefs were more predictive of self-rated effort; (b) self-concept and value beliefs emerged as equally important predictors of teacher-reported engagement; (c) among the four value beliefs, achievement was more associated with low cost, whereas effort was more associated with attainment value; and (d) latent interactions between self-concept and value beliefs predicted the three outcomes synergistically.

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Math achievement, math self-concept, and vocational interests are critical predictors of STEM careers and are closely linked to high school coursework. Young women are less likely to choose advanced math courses in high school, and encouraging young women to enroll in advanced math courses may therefore bring more women into STEM careers. We looked at a German statewide educational reform that required all students to take advanced math courses and examined differential effects of the reform on young men and women's math achievement, math self-concept, vocational interests, and field of study at university. We compared data from 4,730 students before the reform and 4,715 students after the reform. We specified multiple regression models and tested main effects of gender and cohort as well as the effect of the Cohort ϫ Gender interaction on all outcomes. All outcomes showed clear gender differences favoring young men before the reform. However, the reform was associated with different effects for young men and women: Whereas gender differences in math achievement were smaller after the reform, differences between young men and women in math self-concept and realistic and investigative vocational interests were larger after the reform than before. Gender differences in the field of study at university did not differ between before and after the reform. Results suggest that reducing course choice options in high school does not automatically increase gender equality in STEM fields. Educational Impact and Implications StatementThis study suggests that making it obligatory for young women and men to participate in advanced math courses in upper secondary school can increase their math achievement and realistic (e.g., technical) interests. However, it also seems to have the potential to negatively impact young women's self-perceptions of their math ability. The study illustrates that well-intended educational reforms might not achieve all goals (and in fact might result in unintended side effects) when psychological factors are ignored.