Transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) is a potent trophic factor for midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons, but its in vivo function and signaling mechanisms are not entirely understood. We show that the transcriptional cofactor homeodomain interacting protein kinase 2 (HIPK2) is required for the TGFβ-mediated survival of mouse DA neurons. The targeted deletion of Hipk2 has no deleterious effect on the neurogenesis of DA neurons, but leads to a selective loss of these neurons that is due to increased apoptosis during programmed cell death. As a consequence, Hipk2 −/− mutants show an array of psychomotor abnormalities. The function of HIPK2 depends on its interaction with receptor-regulated Smads to activate TGFβ target genes. In support of this notion, DA neurons from Hipk2 −/− mutants fail to survive in the presence of TGFβ3 and Tgfβ3 −/− mutants show DA neuron abnormalities similar to those seen in Hipk2 −/− mutants. These data underscore the importance of the TGFβ-Smad-HIPK2 pathway in the survival of DA neurons and its potential as a therapeutic target for promoting DA neuron survival during neurodegeneration.Ventral midbrain DA neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) control extrapyramidal movement and a variety of cognitive
Research has found a link between active student participation in the classroom and memory retention. Participation can encompass many aspects, including asking questions in class and partaking in classroom activities. Extensive studies have been conducted on Chinese students concerning their overall involvement in class. When compared to their Western counterparts, Chinese students are often regarded as silent passive learners (i.e. not active), hence negatively affecting their ability to learn in the classroom environment. The changeability of education together with ongoing globalization has led to an increase in Chinese students going abroad. As a result, there has been an increase in demand for international high schools and other educational training centres that prepare Chinese students for tertiary education in the West. This research investigates classroom behaviours and face values of students attending a Chinese international high school and compares them with students attending a conventional Chinese public high school. A MANOVA is used to assess these differences based on a questionnaire submitted to 349 students from Taiyuan, Shanxi province in China. Results show that students following an international program ask more questions in class, but no difference is found in regards to the Chinese cultural value of face. Subsequently, auxiliary qualitative research was performed to clarify quantitative outcomes. These outcomes showed that efforts to save face, academic pressure, classroom environment, and pre-existing individual factors contribute to this found difference.
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