Probiotics have been used in poultry for decades and have become common in the pet bird industry. Desirable characteristics of probiotic organisms are that they are nonpathogenic, have the ability to adhere to intestinal epithelial cells, have the ability to colonize and reproduce in the host, have the ability to be host-specific, survive transit through the gastrointestinal tract and exposure to stomach acid and bile, produce metabolites that inhibit or kill pathogenic bacteria, modulate gastrointestinal immune responses, and survive processing and storage. Purported benefits in birds are disease prevention and promotion of growth. Recommendations for use in avian species are for periodic use to replenish normal flora, use after antibiotic therapy to reestablish normal flora, and use during periods of stress to counter effects of immunosuppression.
Early climbing fiber metamorphosis has been studied in 250 Golgi preparations of 5-12 day postnatal rat cerebellum, and in less numerous 12-18 day ones. EM controls were provided for the early phase covering maturation of Purkinje cytoplasm, status of axonal neuropil, and synapses between the evanescent nid structure and Purkinje soma membrane.Ramon y Cajal (1890, 'll), Athias (1897) and others have contributed extensively to climbing fiber histogenesis. Our results are confirmatory but support more varied developmental detail including that of axonal collateralization within the granular layer, all of which may not persist to maturity. Distinguishing characteristics of climbing fibers are recognized early in histogenesis, including varicosities, redundancies in course, and a manner of branching called cross-over. The curvaceous path a climbing fiber pursues across the granular layer can be corrected at the ganglionic level by a horizontal segment having length equivalent to the offset. These and other redundancies may straighten out with areal expansion of cortical surface as compared to the restricted white matter base.While supporting multiple innervation of nids by local collateralizations proceeding from stem axons in white matter, the study does not preclude a one to one relationship between adult climbing fiber and Purkinje cell as basic design. Unknown factors are the relative amounts of local collateralization proceeding from several versus a single axon stem, and the extent to which branches are issued from a single fiber to different folia.
Cerebellar cortex was studied in 100 rats and other animals, 15-30 days old, using Golgi, intravitam methylene blue, and ultrastructural methods. Marchi and Nauta provided certain controls. Degeneration of afferent terminals was sought following lesions of pons and olive.In normal material, emphasis was upon the chanqing field relations between folial summit, side wall, and sulcus. Many previous findings of Fox, Ramon y Cajal and Snider were confirmed, and the effort made to reconcile departures from characteristic axonal and dendritic configuration with cytoarchitectonic pattern. Mossy and climbing terminals were examined in normal and degenerated states, using Golgi and ultrastructural material. Climbing fibers in Golgi are described in detail, including variations in course and sites of branchings. Mossy degeneration was found 3-5 days after lesions of both pons and olive. The clearest evidence thereof was provided in ultrastructural material. Minor evidences of degeneration were also found in climbing fiber strands in both materials, but no gross degeneration was encountered. Corresponding Golgi material was used for visualizing intact fibers in the face of adequate lesions.Ultrastructure also provided evidence concerning the axon cap surround, the initial segment of the Purkinje axon, comparison with these segmests in other cell types, and cross-identification of synapses between axon types and the different cell profiles of Golgi material.
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