Dopamine receptor subtypes have been classified generally as D1-like (e.g., D1, D5) or D2-like (D2, D3, D4), and converging evidence suggests that D2-like receptors may be especially important in mediating the abuse-related effects of cocaine. However, it has been difficult to differentiate the roles of the D2-like receptor subtypes in the behavioral effects of cocaine because of the relatively low selectivity of drugs for D2, D3, and D4 receptors in vivo. The goal of the present series of studies was to investigate the contributions of D2-like receptor subtypes in the reinforcing effects of cocaine using new genetic and pharmacological tools. First, we evaluated cocaine self-administration behavior, and related effects of nonselective D2-like drugs, in mutant mice that lack the D2 receptor but express D3 and D4 receptors. When high doses of cocaine on the descending limb of the cocaine dose-effect function were available, D2 mutant mice self-administered at higher rates than their heterozygous or wild-type littermates, but the ascending limb of the cocaine dose-effect function did not differ between genotypes. Elevated rates of drug intake were not attributable to nonspecific increases in response rate, because response rates maintained by presentation of a range of food concentrations were significantly lower in D2 mutant mice than in wild-type mice. In wild-type mice, pretreatment with the D2-like antagonist eticlopride increased rates of self-administration of high doses of cocaine, and the D2-like agonist quinelorane served as a positive reinforcer when substituted for cocaine. However, these effects of eticlopride and quinelorane were not observed in mice that lacked the D2 receptor. Next, we compared the effects of novel antagonists selective for different D2 receptor subtypes on cocaine self-administration behavior in outbred rats. In rats, a D2 selective antagonist increased rates of self-administration of high doses of cocaine and also combinations of cocaine and the D2-like agonist quinelorane, whereas D3/D4 antagonists were ineffective. Collectively, these findings suggest that the D2 receptor is not necessary for cocaine self-administration, but this receptor subtype is involved in mechanisms that limit rates of high-dose cocaine self-administration. Our results also suggest that D3 and D4 receptors do not play major roles in the modulation of cocaine self-administration by D2-like drugs.

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TYK2 is a JAK family protein tyrosine kinase activated in response to multiple cytokines, including type I IFNs, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, and IL-23. Extensive studies of mice that lack TYK2 expression indicate that the IFN-α, IL-12, and IL-23 pathways, but not the IL-6 or IL-10 pathways, are compromised. In contrast, there have been few studies of the role of TYK2 in primary human cells. A genetic mutation at the tyk2 locus that results in a lack of TYK2 protein in a single human patient has been linked to defects in the IFN-α, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, and IL-23 pathways, suggesting a broad role for TYK2 protein in human cytokine responses. In this article, we have used a panel of novel potent TYK2 small-molecule inhibitors with varying degrees of selectivity against other JAK kinases to address the requirement for TYK2 catalytic activity in cytokine pathways in primary human cells. Our results indicate that the biological processes that require TYK2 catalytic function in humans are restricted to the IL-12 and IL-23 pathways, and suggest that inhibition of TYK2 catalytic activity may be an efficacious approach for the treatment of select autoimmune diseases without broad immunosuppression.

A major issue in designing drugs as antagonists at the glycine site of the NMDA receptor has been to achieve good in vivo activity. A series of 4-hydroxyquinolone glycine antagonists was found to be active in the DBA/2 mouse anticonvulsant assay, but improvements in in vitro affinity were not mirrored by corresponding increases in anticonvulsant activity. Here we show that binding of the compounds to plasma protein limits their brain penetration. Relative binding to the major plasma protein, albumin, was measured in two different ways: by a radioligand binding experiment or using an HPLC assay, for a wide structural range of glycine/NMDA site ligands. These measures of plasma protein binding correlate well (r = 0.84), and the HPLC assay has been used extensively to quantify plasma protein binding. For the 4-hydroxyquinolone series, binding to plasma protein correlates (r = 0.92) with log P (octanol/pH 7.4 buffer) over a range of log P values from 0 to 5. The anticonvulsant activity increases with in vitro affinity, but the slope of a plot of pED50 versus pIC50 is low (0.40); taking plasma protein binding into account in this plot increases the slope to 0.60. This shows that binding to albumin in plasma reduces the amount of compound free to diffuse across the blood-brain barrier. Further evidence comes from three other experiments: (a) Direct measurements of brain/blood ratios for three compounds (2, 16, 26) show the ratio decreases with increasing log R. (b) Warfarin, which competes for albumin binding sites dose-dependently, decreased the ED50 of 26 for protection against seizures induced by NMDLA. (c) Direct measurements of brain penetration using an in situ brain perfusion model in rat to measure the amount of drug crossing the blood-brain barrier showed that compounds 2, 26, and 32 penetrate the brain well in the absence of plasma protein, but this is greatly reduced when the drug is delivered in plasma. In the 4-hydroxyquinolones glycine site binding affinity increases with lipophilicity of the 3-substituent up to a maximum at a log P around 3, then does not improve further. When combined with increasing protein binding, this gives a parabolic relationship between predicted in vivo activity and log P, with a maximum log P value of 2.39. Finally, the plasma protein binding studies have been extended to other series of glycine site antagonists, and its is shown that for a given log P these have similar protein binding to the 4-hydroxyquinolones, except for compounds that are not acidic. The results have implications for the design of novel glycine site antagonists, and it is suggested that it is necessary to either keep log P low or pKa high to obtain good central nervous system activity.

A therapeutic rationale is proposed for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), by specific targeting of the JAK1 pathway. Examination of the preferred binding conformation of clinically effective, pan-JAK inhibitor 1 led to identification of a novel, tricyclic hinge binding scaffold 3. Exploration of SAR through a series of cycloamino and cycloalkylamino analogues demonstrated this template to be highly tolerant of substitution, with a predisposition to moderate selectivity for the JAK1 isoform over JAK2. This study culminated in the identification of subnanomolar JAK1 inhibitors such as 22 and 49, having excellent cell potency, good rat pharmacokinetic characteristics, and excellent kinase selectivity. Determination of the binding modes of the series in JAK1 and JAK2 by X-ray crystallography supported the design of analogues to enhance affinity and selectivity.

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