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Early changes in physiological and oxidative status induced by salt stress were monitored in two Brassicaceae plants differing in their tolerance to salinity, Cakile maritima (halophyte) and Arabidopsis thaliana (glycophyte). Growth response and antioxidant defense of C. maritima under 400 mM NaCl were compared with those of A. thaliana exposed to 100 mM NaCl. Salinity induced early growth reduction that is less pronounced in C. maritima than in A. thaliana. Maximum hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) level occurred in the leaves of both species 4 h after the onset of salt treatment. A rapid decline in H₂O₂ concentration was observed thereafter in C. maritima, whereas it remained high in A. thaliana. Correlatively, superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase activities increased at 4 h of treatment in C. maritima and decreased thereafter. However, the activity of these enzymes remained higher in treated plants than that in controls, regardless of the duration of treatment, in A. thaliana. The concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA) reached maximum values at 24 h of salt stress in both species. Again, MDA levels decreased later in C. maritima, but remained high in A. thaliana. The contents of α-tocopherol remained constant during salt stress in C. maritima and decreased during the first 24 h of salt stress and then remained low in A. thaliana. The results clearly showed that C. maritima, in contrast to A. thaliana, can rapidly evolve physiological and antioxidant mechanisms to adapt to salt and manage the oxidative stress. This may explain, at least partially, the difference in salt tolerance between halophytes and glycophytes.

Tocopherols are antioxidants found in chloroplasts of leaves, and it is a matter of current debate whether or not they can affect signaling and gene expression in plant cells. For insight into the possible effects of altered tocopherol composition in chloroplasts on gene expression in the nucleus, the expression of ethylene biosynthesis, perception and signaling genes was investigated in vte1 and vte4 Arabidopsis thaliana mutants, which are impaired in tocopherol (vitamin E) biosynthesis. Changes in gene expression were measured in plants exposed to either salt or water stress, and in young and mature leaves of vte1 and vte4 mutants, which lack tocopherol cyclase and γ-tocopherol methyltransferase, respectively. While transcript levels of ethylene signaling genes in the vte1 mutant and the wild type were similar in all tested conditions, major changes in gene expression occurred in the vte4 mutant, particularly in mature leaves (compared with young leaves) and under salt stress. Accumulation of γ- instead of α-tocopherol in this mutant led to elevated transcript levels of ethylene signaling pathway genes (particularly CTR1, EIN2, EIN3 and ERF1) in mature leaves of control plants. However, with salt treatment, transcript levels of most of these genes remained constant or dropped in the vte4 mutant, while they were dramatically induced in the wild type and the vte1 mutant. Furthermore, under salt stress, leaf age-induced jasmonic acid accumulated in both the vte1 mutant and the wild type, but not in the vte4 mutant. It is concluded that jasmonic acid and ethylene signaling pathways are down-regulated in mature leaves of salt-stressed vte4 plants.

Thiol reduction proteins are key regulators of the redox state of the cell, managing development and stress response programs. In plants, thiol reduction proteins, namely thioredoxin (TRX), glutaredoxin (GRX), and their respective reducers glutathione reductase (GR) and thioredoxin reductase (TR), are organized in complex multigene families. In order to decipher the function of the different proteins, it is necessary to have a clear picture of their respective expression profiles. By collecting information from gene expression databases, we have performed a comprehensive in silico study of the expression of all members of different classes of thiol reduction genes (TRX, GRX) in Arabidopsis thaliana. Tissue expression profiles and response to many biotic and abiotic stress conditions have been studied systematically. Altogether, the significance of our data is discussed with respect to published biochemical and genetic studies.

Salt stress is one of the most important abiotic stress factors affecting plant growth and productivity in natural ecosystems. In this study, we aimed at determining possible differences between salt tolerant and salt sensitive species in early (within 72 h) salt stress response in leaves and roots. To this purpose, we subjected three Brassicaceae species, namely two halophytes-Cakile maritima and Thellungiella salsuginea--and a glycophyte--Arabidopsis thaliana- to short-term salt stress (400 mM NaCl). The results indicate that the halophytes showed a differential osmotic and ionic response together with an early and transient oxidative burst, which was characterized by enhanced hydrogen peroxide levels and subsequent activation of antioxidant defenses in both leaves and roots. In addition, the halophytes displayed enhanced accumulation of abscisic acid, jasmonic acid (JA) and ACC (aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, the precursor of ethylene) in leaves and roots, as compared to A. thaliana under salt stress. Moreover, the halophytes showed enhanced expression of ethylene response factor1 (ERF1), the convergence node of the JA and ethylene signaling pathways in both leaves and roots upon exposure to salt stress. In conclusion, we show that the halophytes C. maritima and T. salsuginea experience an early oxidative burst, improved antioxidant defenses and hormonal response not only in leaves but also in roots, in comparison to the glycophyte A. thaliana. This differential signaling response converging, at least in part, into increased ERF1 expression in both above- and underground tissues seems to underlay, at least in part, the enhanced tolerance of the two studied halophytes to salt stress.

This study evaluated if plant ageing can influence the production and composition of seeds in controlled and natural populations of Cistus albidus. Results indicate that reduced plant size in natural populations can help old individuals escape senescence in terms of seed viability loss

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