For the prevention of infectious diseases, knowledge about transmission routes is essential. In addition to respiratory, fecal–oral, and sexual transmission, the transfer of pathogens via surfaces plays a vital role for human pathogenic infections—especially nosocomial pathogens. Therefore, information about the survival of pathogens on surfaces can have direct implications on clinical measures, including hygiene guidelines and disinfection strategies. In this review, we reviewed the existing literature regarding viral, bacterial, and fungal persistence on inanimate surfaces. In particular, the current knowledge of the survival time and conditions of clinically relevant pathogens is summarized. While many pathogens persist only for hours, common nosocomial pathogens can survive for days to weeks under laboratory conditions and thereby potentially form a continuous source of transmission if no adequate inactivation procedures are performed.
Replication in the liver Enveloped HEV particles in the ejaculate HEV infection Immune cells Blood-testis barrier Biliary excretion of non-enveloped HEV particles Enveloped HEV particles in the serum Chronic hepatitis E G en et ic va ria tio n
HighlightsHEV genotype 3 particles were found in the ejaculate of patients with chronic HEV.Genetic variants differed between particles originating from the liver, compared to those originating from the male reproductive system.HEV shedding in the ejaculate continued for >9 months following the end of viremia.
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