Objective:The aim is to establish the extent to which the high false-alarm rate of air traffic control midair conflict alerts is responsible for a "cry wolf" effect-where true alerts are not responded to and all alerts are delayed in their response. Background: Some aircraft collisions have been partly attributed to the cry wolf effect, and in other domains (health care and systems monitoring), there is a causal connection between false-alarm rate and cry wolf behavior. We hypothesized that a corresponding relationship exists in air traffic control (ATC). Method: Aircraft track and alert system behavior data surrounding 495 conflict alerts were analyzed to identify true and false alerts, trajectory type, and controller behavior. Forty-five percent of the alerts were false, ranging from 0.28 to 0.58. Results: Although centers with more false alerts contributed to more nonresponses, there was no evidence that these were nonresponses to true alerts or that response times were delayed in those centers. Instead, controllers showed desirable anticipatory behavior by issuing trajectory changes prior to the alert. Those trajectory pairs whose conflicts were more difficult to visualize induced more reliance on, and less compliance with, the alerting system. Conclusion: The high false-alarm rate does not appear to induce cry wolf behavior in the context of en route ATC conflict alerts. Application: There is no need to substantially modify conflict alert algorithms, but the conflict alert system may be modified to address difficult-to-visualize conflicts.
Objective: An experiment tested a technique for encouraging appropriate human-automation interaction. Background: Operators often fail to make optimal use of automated aids, particularly when the aids are highly reliable. One way to discourage automation disuse might be to encourage automation dependence through time pressure. Methods: Fifty-two participants performed a simulated security screening task, searching for knives hidden in cluttered baggage x-rays. Participants were assisted by a diagnostic aid that was either 95%, 80% or 65% reliable, and were given instructions that asked them to make speeded or unspeeded decisions. Results: Participants showed higher levels of automation dependence under time pressure. This benefited overall performance in the 95% reliable condition. Conclusion: Time pressure encouraged heuristic dependence on automation aids, and benefited overall human-automation performance when the automation was highly reliable. Application: Data suggest a method for mitigating automation disuse.
Although impartiality and concern for the greater good are lauded by utilitarian philosophies, it was predicted that when values conflict, those who acted impartially rather than partially would be viewed as less moral. Across four studies, using life-or-death scenarios and more mundane ones, support for the idea that relationship obligations are important in moral attribution was found. In Studies 1-3, participants rated an impartial actor as less morally good and his or her action as less moral compared to a partial actor. Experimental and correlational evidence showed the effect was driven by inferences about an actor's capacity for empathy and compassion. In Study 4, the relationship obligation hypothesis was refined. The data suggested that violations of relationship obligations are perceived as moral as long as strong alternative justifications sanction them. Discussion centres on the importance of relationships in understanding moral attributions.
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