Even though the use of antibiotics for food-producing animals may contribute to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance, antibiotics are still used as growth promoters. Due to consumer and regulatory pressures, the use of alternatives to antibiotics as growth promoters is increasing, thus more information is needed on their capability to disseminate antimicrobial resistance compared to antibiotics. We investigated the impacts of carbadox (antibiotic), copper sulfate and zinc oxide (metals) and mushroom powder (natural product) on the pig fecal resistome and microbiome. Antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) and mobile genetic element (MGE) abundances were measured using a high-throughput qPCR array with 382 primer pairs. Bacterial community composition was determined by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. More ARGs co-occurred with MGEs in the growth promoter group samples than in the control group samples. Community composition could not be linked to resistome in the growth promoter group samples, indicating a potential decoupling of ARGs and phylogeny. Additionally, machine-learning methods aided in defining the community and resistome differences in response to treatments. Since increased ARG mobility potential was the primary response to the dietary additives used in this study, we suggest that ARG mobility should be considered when designing antimicrobial use policies and antimicrobial resistance surveillances.
16The use of antimicrobials in animal production has been shown to increase the abundance of 17 antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in microbiomes and it is recommended by international health 18 organizations that the use of antimicrobial growth promoters would be restricted. Consequently, 19 the use alternative growth promoters is increasing, however, their influence on the collection of 20ARGs (the resistome) in the animal microbiome is understudied. We investigated the impact of 21 different growth promoters on the pig fecal resistome and microbiome. The growth promoters 22were carbadox (antibiotic), copper sulfate and zinc oxide (metal) or mushroom powder (natural 23 product). Six pens of seven weanling piglets per treatment were used in a growth trial and after 24 33 days, fecal samples were taken from one median weight female and male pig per pen. 25Samples from the same pen were pooled, and DNA was isolated. The community composition 26 was investigated by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and relative ARG and mobile genetic element 27 (MGE) abundances were measured using qPCR array with 382 primers. Only modest shifts were 28 observed in community structure and resistome in response to growth promoters, but more ARGs 29were co-occurring with MGEs in growth promoter group samples than in the control group 30 samples. The taxonomic structure could not be linked to resistome structure in the growth 31 promoter groups. The ARG-MGE co-occurrence patterns suggest that replacing the use of 32 antibiotics with alternative growth promoters might be an insufficient antibiotic resistance 33 mitigation strategy and active selection against ARGs will require a more comprehensive 34 approach. 35
One hundred sixty crossbred pigs (Duroc × (York × Landrace)) weaned at 18.8 d of age and weighing an average of 13.1 lb were used in a 35-day growth trial to evaluate Cordyceps mushroom powder as potential alternative to carbadox in nursery pig diets. Pigs were divided by weight, sex, litter, and assigned to body weight (BW) blocks. Within BW blocks, sex ratios were constant in each pen. Each pen within a BW block was randomly assigned a dietary treatment. Growth performance was analyzed using BW, average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed conversion as feed-to-gain (F:G). Pigs were blocked by weight with 5 or 6 pigs per pen and there were 6 pens per treatment. There were 5 diets used in the study: a negative diet or a positive control (carbadox, 50 g/ton); 300 or 600 ppm mushroom powder, and a step-down treatment (900, 900, 450, 300, and 150 ppm mushroom powder during weeks 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively). At various points of the study, pigs fed the 300 ppm and the step-down mushroom powder treatments tended to have improved (P < 0.10) growth performance compared with those fed the negative control diet. During Phase 4 of the study, pigs fed carbadox had greater ADG (P < 0.02) and improved feed efficiency (P < 0.09) over pigs fed the negative control diet. However, overall data showed that there were no statistical differences among treatments (P > 0.05). In summary, pigs fed 300 ppm mushroom powder or the step-down treatment showed comparable results to pigs fed carbadox. However, future research is needed under a greater disease pressure to show mushroom powder's full potential as an alternative to antibiotics.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the independent and additive effects of Cordyceps mushroom powder (MP) and carbadox to pharmacological levels of copper and zinc in nursery pig diets. Two hundred and ten crossbred weanling pigs (Duroc × (York × Landrace)) average of 19 d of age and 12.8 lb were used in a 33-day growth trial. Pigs were allotted by weight, sex, ancestry, and assigned to body weight (BW) blocks. Within BW blocks, sex ratios were constant in each pen. Pen was the experimental unit, and growth performance was analyzed using BW, average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed-to-gain ratio (F:G). There were 7 pigs/pen and 6 pens/treatment. Treatments were: 1) a negative control diet (NC); 2) positive control (PC; carbadox, 50 g/ton); 3) NC+ 300 ppm Cordyceps mushroom powder (NC+MP); 4) PC + 300 ppm mushroom powder (PC+MP); 5) supplemental copper sulfate (125 ppm) and zinc oxide (3000 ppm d 0 to 7, 2000 ppm d 7 to 35), CuZn. Dietary treatments were fed in a four-phase feeding program (d 0 to 7, d 7 to 14, d 14 to 21, and d 21 to 33). Pigs fed the PC, PC+MP, and CuZn diets had increased BW (P < 0.05), ADG (P < 0.05), and ADFI (P < 0.10) over those fed the NC at the end of phases 1, 2, and 3, with no main effect of MP treatment. During phase 4, pigs fed MP, PC, and CuZn diets all had increased ADG (P < 0.05; 0.95, 1.05, 1.00, 1.11, 1.07 lb/d, diet 1-5, respectively) and ADFI (P < 0.05) over the NC fed pigs. Overall, d 0 to 33, pigs fed PC diets and CuZn had increased ADG (P < 0.05) and ADFI (P < 0.05), with pigs fed MP tending to have increased ADFI (P < 0.08) over NCfed pigs. Plasma TNF-α concentrations at d 14 postweaning showed a trend for a carbadox main effect, as well as a mushroom by carbadox interaction (P < 0.10) for plasma TNF-α, with the 300 ppm MP having the numerically highest value, while the combination of carbadox and 300 ppm MP had the lowest concentration of TNF-α. Feeding nursery pigs pharmacological levels of Cu+Zn and carbadox have economical value to increase nursery pig performance, while MP may increase pig ADFI and final BW through potentially complementary modes of action to carbadox.
Lactating sows (N=140, York x Landrace) were used to evaluate the effects of a liquid prototype (LIQP) and dry (XPC®; Diamond V) Saccharomyces cerevisiae feed additives on sow and litter performance. Sows were fed a common gestation diet (0.55% SID-Lysine) until d112 of pregnancy and then allotted to lactation treatments: 1) Control diet (CON; 1.00% SID-Lysine), 2) CON +15 mL of LIQP from d112 to weaning (LIQ), 3) CON +0.20% of XPC from d112 to weaning (DRY), and 4) DRY +15 mL of LIQP from d112 to d7 post-farrowing (D+L). The LIQP was given once daily using an oral dose gun and XPC was included in the feed. Immunoglobulin concentrations were estimated on colostrum samples using Brix refractometer and piglet d 1 serum immunocrit ratio and plasma IgA and IgG. Daily sow water intake and daily feed intake (DFI) from d112 of gestation to d7 post-farrowing and weekly feed intake (ADFI) were recorded. There were no treatment effects on sow BW, backfat, or loin depth (P >0.05) although sows from LIQ group had numerically smaller BW reductions compared to CON sows (4.9% vs 7.2%, P=0.19). LIQ sows had greater DFI and CON lower DFI during week 1 of lactation (P=0.04) as well as ADFI for weeks 2, 3, and overall lactation period (P< 0.01) with DRY and D+L sows being intermediate. Water intake, immunoglobulins, and litter performance did not differ among treatments (P >0.05) although pigs from LIQ sows, compared to CON, had numerically increased weaning (6.14 vs 5.82kg, P >0.05) and litter weights (63.2 vs 60.1kg, P >0.05). LIQ sows had 0.7 d reduced wean-to-estrus interval (P< 0.001) and tended to have greater conception rates (P=0.07). In conclusion, LIQ supplementation of lactating sows improves feed intake, allowing sows to keep body reserves, and have better subsequent rebreeding performance.
The objective of this study was to determine the optimal level of Cordyceps mushroom powder inclusion in diets for nursery pigs. One-hundred sixty crossbred pigs [(Duroc × (York × Landrace)] weaned at 18.8 d of age and weighing an average of 5.94 kg were used in a 35 day, 4 phase growth trial to evaluate Cordyceps mushroom powder as potential alternative to carbadox in nursery pig diets. Pigs were allotted by weight, sex, litter, and assigned to body weight (BW) blocks. Within BW blocks, sex ratios were constant in each pen. Each pen within a BW block was randomly assigned a dietary treatment. Growth performance was analyzed as a RCB design using BW, ADG, ADFI, G:F using GLM procedure of SAS 9.4. There were 5 or 6 pigs/pen and 6 pens/treatment. Five diets were used in the study: a negative diet or a positive control (Carbadox, 55 ppm); 300 or 600 ppm mushroom powder, and a step down treatment (900, 900, 450, 300, 150 ppm mushroom powder during weeks 1 through 5, respectively). At various points of the study, pigs fed the 300 ppm and the step-down mushroom powder treatments tended to have improved (P < 0.10) growth performance compared with those fed the negative control diet. During Phase 4 of the study, pigs fed Carbadox had greater ADG (P < 0.02) and improved feed efficiency (P < 0.09) compared to pigs fed the negative control diet. However, overall data showed that there were no statistical differences among treatments (P > 0.05). In summary, pigs fed 300 ppm mushroom powder or the step-down treatment showed comparable growth performance to pigs fed Carbadox. However, future research is needed under a greater disease challenge to examine mushroom powder’s full potential as an alternative to antibiotics.
One hundred thirty-two gilts and barrows (18.2 d of age) weighing an average of 13.4 lb (Duroc × (York × Landrace)) were put on test for a 35-day growth trial to assess the effects of Cordyceps mushroom powder (MP) or purified mushroom beta-glucan (BG) as an antibiotic alternative in nursery diets. There were 6 diets, negative and positive controls (NC and PC), 150 and 300 ppm mushroom powder, and 150 and 300 ppm beta-glucan equivalents to the MP diets. Pigs were divided by weight, sex, litter, and assigned to 6 body weight (BW) blocks. Within BW blocks, sex ratios were constant in each pen. Pigs and feeders were weighed weekly to determine average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed efficiency (F/G). During phase 1 (d 0 to 7), pigs fed the PC had increased ADG, ADFI, and d 7 BW (P < 0.05) compared to pigs fed the NC. Beta-glucan and MP also increased ADFI in phase 1 (P < 0.05) compared to the NC. During phase 2 (d 7 to 14), a health challenge (hemolytic Escherichia coli) went through half of the pigs with the other half challenged in phase 3 (d 14 to 21). This led to some erratic performance because of the pigs eating, but losing weight. In phase 4 there was a BG and MP interaction between source and dose. Pigs fed 300 level of MP had improved F/G, while those fed the 300 level of BG had poorer efficiency in phase 4 (P < 0.07). Overall, there was an improvement (P > 0.05) in F:G ratio in the PC when compared to the NC. There was also an interaction between source and dose for ADFI (P < 0.05) between the BG and MP treatments. There was a significant improvement in F/G in MP and BG pigs compared to NC pigs (P < 0.05). On day 35, there were no differences in final BW among treatments. A premarket weight was collected on all pigs at d 154 after weaning, and pigs fed the 300 BG from day 0 to 35 were 24.4 lb heavier than the NC (P < 0.05) and 15.4 lb heavier than the PC (P < 0.05).
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