This Article Reports Two Experiments. In the first experiment, 13 professional singers performed a vocal exercise consisting of three ascending and descending melodic intervals: minor second, tritone, and perfect fifth. Seconds were sung more narrowly but fifths more widely in both directions, as compared to their equally tempered counterparts. In the second experiment, intonation accuracy in performances recorded from the first experiment was evaluated in a listening test. Tritones and fifths were more frequently classified as out of tune than seconds. Good correspondence was found between interval tuning and the listeners responses. The performers themselves evaluated their performance almost randomly in the immediate post-performance situation but acted comparably to the independent group after listening to their own recording. The data suggest that melodic intervals may be, on an average, 20 to 25 cents out of tune and still be estimated as correctly tuned by expert listeners.
Two same-different discrimination experiments were performed for click patterns having a total duration of about 4 sec and interclick intervals of n x 250 msec, with n a random integer. In Experiment 1, the influence of the physical click group structure on discrimination performance was investigated. In Experiment 2, the effect of the strength of an induced internal clock on discrimination performance was measured. Performance was poor if the group structure of clicks was maintained during a change in click pattern and also if the induced internal clock strength was low. The performance of about 70% of the subjects improved significantly if either a change in click grouping structure occurred or a strong internal clock could be induced. These results cannot be accounted for with simple models based on single-interval duration discrimination or between-pattern correlation statistics. This paper deals with the cognitive representation of rhythmic patterns in music, particularly with factors that either enhance or inhibit our ability to detect small changes in such patterns. The sound patterns we studied are simple click patterns, which are quasirnusical in the sense that clicks are separated by time intervals that are integer multiples of some basic time interval. Click patterns are devoid of any pitch, timbre, or dynamic variation. The use of such stimuli permits one to avoid possibly confounding influences of pitch, timbre, or loudness on perceived rhythm, as is easily the case when one is listening to real music. It nevertheless preserves a situation close enough to musical practice to ensure that results will be musically relevant.Handel (1989) has defined rhythm as an interplay between meter and grouping. According to this viewpoint, we might consider rhythm as a sequence of acoustic events that (1) interact with the implemented periodical framework (i.e., meter) and (2) may be divided into a number of sound-event clusters or groups. His dichotomy between meter and grouping implies a relationship between serial and hierarchical processing of temporal auditory information. Grouping would apparently be associated with serial processing, while meter presumes complex multilevel coding of sound information.The influence of both meter and grouping of events on rhythm perception has been confirmed by data from several investigations. One of the first among these, by Royer and Garner (1966), established the importance of groups of adjacent sound elements in a pattern (called runs) for its perceptual organization. Subjects had to reproduce the This study was made possible by a postdoctoral research fellowship grant from the Eindhoven University of Technology to J.R., who is affiliated with the Institute of Language and Literature,
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The voices of 42 students studying classical opera singing at the Estonian Academy of Music were investigated to find any objectively definable qualities possibly correlating with the length of training. Each student's singing of a four-bar sevenword initial phrase from a well-known Estonian classical solo was recorded. The recordings were digitalized and subjected to acoustic analysis yielding the longterm average spectrum (LTAS) for each voice studied. It turned out that the longer a singing student had been trained professionally, the higher was the level of the so-called singer's formant in her/his LTAS. Subsequently the voice quality in each recording was evaluated by four experts using a five-point scale, five points marking the best quality and one point the poorest. It turned out that the average ratings did not show any positive correlation with the length of training, rather, a slightly negative trend (not statistically significant) could be observed. The results seem to support the critical remarks made by some Estonian specialists about domestic teaching of vocal music being perhaps inadequate in some respects (Pappel, 1990). The teaching process seemsto be focused on the development of those qualities that enable the singer to be audible in large halls and with a symphony orchestra, while the timbral qualities recede into the background.
Singing teachers sometimes characterize voice quality in terms of 'forward' and 'backward placement'. In view of traditional knowledge about voice production, it is hard to explain any possible acoustic or articulatory differences between the voices so 'placed'. We have synthesized a number of three-tone melodic excerpts performed by the singing voice. Formant frequencies, and the level and frequency of the singer's formant were varied across the stimuli. Results of a listening test show that the stimuli which were perceived as 'placed forward', correlated not only with higher frequencies of the first and second formants, but also with the higher frequency and level of the singer's formant.
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