The mucosal barrier has three major components, the mucus layer, the epithelial glycocalyx and the surface epithelium itself, whose integrity largely depends on tight junction function. In health, there is relatively little direct interaction between the luminal microbiota and the epithelium - the continuous mucus layer in the colon keeps the surface epithelium out of contact with bacteria and the ileo-caecal valve ensures that the distal small intestine is relatively microbe free. Most interaction takes place at the Peyer's patches in the distal ileum and their smaller colonic equivalents, the lymphoid follicles. Peyer's patches are overlain by a ‘dome' epithelium, 5% of whose cells are specialised M (microfold) epithelial cells, which act as the major portal of entry for bacteria. There are no goblet cells in the dome epithelium and M cells have a very sparse glycocalyx allowing easy microbial interaction. It is intriguing that the typical age range for the onset of Crohn's disease (CD) is similar to the age at which the number of Peyer's patches is greatest. Peyer's patches are commonly the sites of the initial lesions in CD and the ‘anti-pancreatic' antibody associated with CD has been shown to have as its epitope the glycoprotein 2 that is the receptor for type-1 bacterial fimbrial protein (fimH) on M cells. There are many reasons to believe that the mucosal barrier is critically important in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). These include (i) associations between both CD and ulcerative colitis (UC) with genes that are relevant to the mucosal barrier; (ii) increased intestinal permeability in unaffected relatives of CD patients; (iii) increased immune reactivity against bacterial antigens, and (iv) animal models in which altered mucosal barrier, e.g. denudation of the mucus layer associated with oral dextran sulphate in rodents, induces colitis. Whilst some IBD patients may have genetic factors leading to weakening of the mucosal barrier, it is likely that environmental factors may be even more important. Some may be subtle and indirect, e.g. the effects of stress on the mucosa barrier, whilst others may be more obvious, e.g. the effect of pathogen-related gastroenteritis, known often to act as trigger for IBD relapse. We have also been very interested in the potentially harmful effects of ingested detergents - either by contamination of cutlery by inadequate rinsing or via ingestion of processed foods containing permitted emulsifiers. In vitro and ex vivo studies show that even very small trace amounts of these surfactants can greatly increase bacterial translocation. Implications for therapy are not yet so obvious. We advise our IBD patients to avoid processed foods containing emulsifiers and to rinse their dishes well - whilst accepting that there is no direct evidence yet to support this. Therapies that aim to enhance the mucosal barrier have yet to come to market, but trials of enteric-delivered phosphatidylcholine in UC are promising. The faecal concentration of mucus-degrading bact...

The aims of this study were, firstly, to compare five published methods for the isolation of Arcobacter spp. from animal feces in order to determine the most sensitive and specific method. Second, we analyzed the resulting isolates by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) in order to investigate the diversity of the isolates recovered. Third, we investigated the ability to recover Arcobacter spp. from frozen fecal samples. Seventy-seven fecal samples from cattle, sheep, and badgers were subjected to five isolation methods, based on published methods for the isolation of Arcobacter and Campylobacter spp. Thirty-nine Arcobacter butzleri isolates were analyzed using a multilocus sequence typing scheme. The survival of Arcobacter spp. in frozen samples was investigated by freezing the fecal samples at ؊80°C for 7 days and then applying the same five isolation methods. The most sensitive and specific method used an Arcobacter-specific broth in conjunction with modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate agar (mCCDA) with added antibiotics. Freezing of fecal samples led to a reduction in the recovery of Arcobacter spp. by approximately 50%. The 39 allelic profiles obtained by MLST could be divided into 11 sequence types (STs). We have identified the most sensitive and specific method for the isolation of Arcobacter spp. from animal feces and demonstrated that the freezing of fecal samples prior to isolation reduces arcobacter recovery. MLST analysis of the isolates revealed a high level of diversity.

The kobuviruses represent an emerging genus in the Picornaviridae. Here we have used next generation sequencing and conventional approaches to identify the first canine kobuvirus (CaKoV) from outside the USA. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that a single lineage genotype of CaKoV now exists in Europe and the USA with 94% nucleotide similarity in the coding region. CaKoV was only identified in a single case from a case-control study of canine diarrhoea, suggesting this virus was not a frequent cause of disease in this population. Attempts to grow CaKoV in cell culture failed. Sequence analysis suggested CaKoV was distinct from human Aichi virus (AiV), and unlikely to pose a significant zoonotic risk. Serosurveys by ELISA, immunofluorescence and neutralisation tests, using AiV as antigen, suggested kobuvirus infection is prevalent in dogs. In addition, IgG antibody to AiV was also detected in cat sera, indicating for the first time that cats may also be susceptible to kobuvirus infection.

Chronic inflammation is a common factor in the development of many gastrointestinal malignancies. Examples include inflammatory bowel disease predisposing to colorectal cancer, Barrett's esophagus as a precursor of esophageal adenocarcinoma, and Helicobacter pylori-induced gastric cancer. The classical activation pathway of NF-κB signaling has been identified as regulating several sporadic and inflammation-associated gastrointestinal tract malignancies. Emerging evidence suggests that the alternative NF-κB signaling pathway also exerts a distinct influence on these processes. This review brings together current knowledge of the role of the alternative NF-κB signaling pathway in the gastrointestinal tract, with a particular emphasis on inflammation-associated cancer development.

Arcobacter butzleri is considered to be an emerging human foodborne pathogen. The completion of an A. butzleri genome sequence along with microarray analysis of 13 isolates in 2007 revealed a surprising amount of diversity amongst A. butzleri isolates from humans, animals and food. In order to further investigate Arcobacter diversity, 792 faecal samples were collected from cattle on beef and dairy farms in the North West of England. Arcobacter was isolated from 42.5% of the samples and the diversity of the isolates was investigated using multilocus sequence typing. An A. butzleri whole genome sequence, obtained by 454 shotgun sequencing of an isolate from a clinically-healthy dairy cow, showed a number of differences when compared to the genome of a human-derived A. butzleri isolate. PCR-based prevalence assays for variable genes suggested some tentative evidence for source-related distributions. We also found evidence for phenotypic differences relating to growth capabilities between our representative human and cattle isolates. Our genotypic and phenotypic observations suggest that some level of niche adaptation may have occurred in A. butzleri.

SUMMARYCampylobacter is the leading cause of bacterial diarrhoeal disease worldwide, with raw and undercooked poultry meat and products the primary source of infection. Colonization of broiler chicken flocks with Campylobacter has proved difficult to prevent, even with high levels of biosecurity. Dipteran flies are proven carriers of Campylobacter and their ingress into broiler houses may contribute to its transmission to broiler chickens. However, this has not been investigated in the UK. Campylobacter was cultured from 2195 flies collected from four UK broiler farms. Of flies cultured individually, 0·22% [2/902, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0–0·53] were positive by culture for Campylobacter spp. Additionally, 1293 flies were grouped by family and cultured in 127 batches: 4/127 (3·15%, 95% CI 0·11-6·19) from three broiler farms were positive for Campylobacter. Multilocus sequence typing of isolates demonstrated that the flies were carrying broiler-associated sequence types, responsible for human enteric illness. Malaise traps were used to survey the dipteran species diversity on study farms and also revealed up to 612 flies present around broiler-house ventilation inlets over a 2-h period. Therefore, despite the low prevalence of Campylobacter cultured from flies, the risk of transmission by this route may be high, particularly during summer when fly populations are greatest.

Arcobacter butzleri strain 7h1h was isolated in the United Kingdom from the feces of a clinically healthy dairy cow. The genome of this isolate was sequenced to completion. Here, we present the annotation and analysis of the completed 7h1h genome, along with a comparison of this genome to the existing A. butzleri genomes.

Significance and Impact of the Study: Studies have shown Arcobacter spp. to be present in domestic sewage in several European countries. This study supports previous findings with the first report of Arcobacter spp. in domestic sewage in the UK. This study suggests that Arcobacter spp. is present amongst local human populations, implicating it as an underestimated gastrointestinal pathogen in the UK and contributing to our understanding of this emerging pathogen and its presence within the UK. Providing a confirmation of the presence of Arcobacter in sewage, which supports previous studies, this paper will appeal to fellow researchers of Arcobacter, as well as healthcare and water treatment professionals concerned with microbiology, water safety and gastroenterology, potentially having a wide impact. AbstractArcobacter butzleri and Arcobacter cryaerophilus were isolated from samples of raw untreated domestic sewage influent from nine separate wastewater treatment facilities in Cheshire, UK. This is the first report of Arcobacter spp. from sewage in the UK and suggests that Arcobacter spp. may be present in the human community.