Thunderstorms are natural laboratories for studying electrical discharges in air, where the vast temporal, spatial, and energy scales available can spawn surprising phenomena that reveal deficiencies in our understanding of dielectric breakdown. Recent discoveries, such as sprites, jets, terrestrial gamma ray flashes, and fast positive breakdown, highlight the diversity of complex phenomena that thunderstorms can produce, and point to the possibility for electrical breakdown/discharge mechanisms beyond dielectric breakdown theory based mainly on laboratory experiments. Here we present one such confounding discovery, termed fast negative breakdown, that does not fit with our current understanding of dielectric breakdown. Our adaptation of radio astronomy imaging techniques to study extremely transient lightning-associated events confirms that electrical breakdown in thunderstorms can begin with oppositely-directed fast breakdown of negative polarity, similar and in addition to fast positive breakdown expected from conventional dielectric theory and recent observations. The discovery of fast negative breakdown calls for an addendum to the physical description of electrical discharges in air.

This paper reports a study to understand the radio spectrum of thunderstorm narrow bipolar events (NBEs) or compact intracloud discharges, which are powerful sources of high-frequency (HF) and very high frequency (VHF) electromagnetic radiation. The radio spectra from 10 kHz to about 100 MHz are obtained for three NBEs, including one caused by fast positive breakdown and two by fast negative breakdown. The results indicate that the two polarities of fast breakdown have similar spectra, with a relatively flat spectrum in the HF and VHF band. The ratio of energy spectral densities in the very low frequency and HF bands is (0.9-5) × 10 5 . We develop a statistical modeling approach to investigate if a system of streamers can explain the main features of fast breakdown. Assuming that the current moment peak and charge moment change of individual streamers vary in the ranges of 5-10 A-m and 5-20 μC-m, respectively, the modeling results indicate that a system of 10 7 -10 8 streamers can reproduce the current moment, charge transfer, and radio spectrum of fast breakdown. The rapid current variation on a time scale of nanoseconds required for fast breakdown to produce strong HF/VHF emissions is provided by exponentially accelerating and expanding streamers. Our study therefore supports the hypothesis that fast breakdown is a system of streamers. Finally, suggestions are given regarding future streamer simulations and NBE measurements in order to further develop our understanding of NBEs and lightning initiation.

The production mechanism for terrestrial gamma ray flashes (TGFs) is not entirely understood, and details of the corresponding lightning activity and thunderstorm charge structure have yet to be fully characterized. Here we examine sub-microsecond VHF (14-88 MHz) radio interferometer observations of a 247-kA peak-current EIP, or energetic in-cloud pulse, a reliable radio signature of a subset of TGFs. The EIP consisted of three high-amplitude sferic pulses lasting ≃60 μs in total, which peaked during the second (main) pulse. The EIP occurred during a normal-polarity intracloud lightning flash that was highly unusual, in that the initial upward negative leader was particularly fast propagating and discharged a highly concentrated region of upper-positive storm charge. The flash was initiated by a high-power (46 kW) narrow bipolar event (NBE), and the EIP occurred about 3 ms later after ≃3 km upward flash development. The EIP was preceded ≃200 μs by a fast 6 × 10 6 m/s upward negative breakdown and immediately preceded and accompanied by repeated sequences of fast (10 7-10 8 m/s) downward then upward streamer events each lasting 10 to 20 μs, which repeatedly discharged a large volume of positive charge. Although the repeated streamer sequences appeared to be a characteristic feature of the EIP and were presumably involved in initiating it, the EIP sferic evolved independently of VHF-producing activity, supporting the idea that the sferic was produced by relativistic discharge currents. Moreover, the relativistic currents during the main sferic pulse initiated a strong NBE-like event comparable in VHF power (115 kW) to the highest-power NBEs.

Plasma discharge fluid simulations indicate a negative streamer can be initiated from the narrow tip of a cone‐shaped, realistically sized hydrometeor in a uniform electric field as low as 0.65Ek. A negative streamer, however, cannot be formed from a cone‐shaped hydrometeor with a slightly smaller base radius or a column hydrometeor under otherwise the same conditions. The simulation also shows the negative streamer is accompanied by a positive streamer. The results present implications for understanding lightning initiation and the physical mechanism of the recently discovered thunderstorm‐related phenomenon called fast negative breakdown. Finally, the initiated negative streamer develops with a relatively constant head radius and velocity in contrast with the expanding and accelerating positive streamer. It appears that the differences between the properties of each polarity of streamer are more pronounced in an electric field below Ek.

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Recent observations from LOFAR indicate that multiple, spatially distributed corona bursts can occur in lightning processes with a timescale of 10 microseconds. The close proximity of the corona bursts in space and time poses a great observation challenge for short‐baseline (typically ≤100 m) radio interferometers. This paper reports simulations to show the interferometry results that would be obtained with such an interferometer. In particular, spatially‐separated corona bursts at fixed locations may be seen as a fast (>107 m/s) propagating source with large power variation if the resolution of the instrument is greater than the spatial separation of the bursts. The implications and suggestions for lightning interferometry studies are discussed in the paper.

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