The ease of obtaining genotypic data from wild populations has renewed interest in the relationship between individual genetic diversity and fitness-related traits (heterozygosityfitness correlations, or HFC). Here we present a comprehensive meta-analysis of HFC studies using powerful multivariate techniques which account for nonindependence of data. We comparethesefindingswiththosefromunivariatetechniques,andtesttheinfluenceofarange of factors hypothesized to influence the strength of HFCs. We found small but significantly positive effect sizes for life-history, morphological, and physiological traits; while theory predicts higher mean effect sizes for life-history traits, effect size did not differ consistently with trait type. Newly proposed measures of variation were no more powerful at detecting relationships than multilocus heterozygosity, and populations predicted to have elevated inbreeding variance did not exhibit higher mean effect sizes. Finally, we found evidence for publication bias, with studies reporting weak, nonsignificant effects being under-represented in the literature. In general, our review shows that HFC studies do not generally reveal patterns predicted by population genetic theory, and are of small effect (less than 1% of the variancein phenotypic characters explained). Future studies should use more genetic marker dataandutilizesamplingdesignsthatshedmorelightonthebiologicalmechanismsthatmay modulate the strength of association, for example by contrasting the strength of HFCs in mainlandandislandpopulationsofthesamespecies,investigatingtheroleofenvironmental stress, or by considering how selection has shaped the traits under investigation.

The choice of reference genes that are stably expressed amongst treatment groups is a crucial step in real-time quantitative PCR gene expression studies. Recent guidelines have specified that a minimum of two validated reference genes should be used for normalisation. However, a quantitative review of the literature showed that the average number of reference genes used across all studies was 1.2. Thus, the vast majority of studies continue to use a single gene, with β-actin (ACTB) and/or glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) being commonly selected in studies of vertebrate gene expression. Few studies (15%) tested a panel of potential reference genes for stability of expression before using them to normalise data. Amongst studies specifically testing reference gene stability, few found ACTB or GAPDH to be optimal, whereby these genes were significantly less likely to be chosen when larger panels of potential reference genes were screened. Fewer reference genes were tested for stability in non-model organisms, presumably owing to a dearth of available primers in less well characterised species. Furthermore, the experimental conditions under which real-time quantitative PCR analyses were conducted had a large influence on the choice of reference genes, whereby different studies of rat brain tissue showed different reference genes to be the most stable. These results highlight the importance of validating the choice of normalising reference genes before conducting gene expression studies.

Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae, the causal agent of bacterial canker of kiwifruit, was detected for the first time in New Zealand in November 2010. Only in Bay of Plenty, one of the four regions where this pathogen had been detected, did symptoms evolve beyond leaf spots, resulting in cane die-back, wilting of canes, and canker, sometimes leading to death of the vine. Molecular analysis (cts haplotype and BOX-polymerase chain reaction [PCR] electrophoretic pattern) of strains isolated from different regions of New Zealand revealed that two biovars could be distinguished. They have been called biovar 3 and biovar 4 to differentiate them from strains from Japan (biovar 1) or Korea (biovar 2), which have a different cts haplotype or a different BOX-PCR pattern. Biovars 3 and 4 displayed different degrees of virulence, as measured by their ability to cause leaf spots on young, potted kiwifruit plants. Biovar 3, which has also been present in Italy since 2008 and in France, was found in the Bay of Plenty, where cane diebacks were observed. In contrast, no symptoms other than leaf spots have been observed in orchards where strains of biovar 4 have been isolated. We report the distribution and the disease progression of biovars 3 and 4 in New Zealand.

Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae, the causal agent of canker in kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) vines, was first detected in Japan in 1984, followed by detections in Korea and Italy in the early 1990s. Isolates causing more severe disease symptoms have recently been detected in several countries with a wide global distribution, including Italy, New Zealand, and China. In order to characterize P. syringae pv. actinidiae populations globally, a representative set of 40 isolates from New Zealand, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and Chile were selected for extensive genetic analysis. Multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) of housekeeping, type III effector and phytotoxin genes was used to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships between P. syringae pv. actinidiae isolates worldwide. Four additional isolates, including one from China, for which shotgun sequence of the whole genome was available, were included in phylogenetic analyses. It is shown that at least four P. syringae pv. actinidiae MLSA groups are present globally, and that marker sets with differing evolutionary trajectories (conserved housekeeping and rapidly evolving effector genes) readily differentiate all four groups. The MLSA group designated here as Psa3 is the strain causing secondary symptoms such as formation of cankers, production of exudates, and cane and shoot dieback on some kiwifruit orchards in Italy and New Zealand. It is shown that isolates from Chile also belong to this MLSA group. MLSA group Psa4, detected in isolates collected in New Zealand and Australia, has not been previously described. P. syringae pv. actinidiae has an extensive global distribution yet the isolates causing widespread losses to the kiwifruit industry can all be traced to a single MLSA group, Psa3.

Understanding causes of variation in promiscuity within populations remain a major challenge. While most studies have focused on quantifying fitness costs and benefits of promiscuous behaviour, an alternative possibility-that variation in promiscuity within populations is maintained because of linkage with other traits-has received little attention. Here, we examine whether promiscuity in male and female great tits (Parus major)-quantified as extra-pair paternity (EPP) within and between nests-is associated with variation in a well-documented personality trait: exploration behaviour in a novel environment. Exploration behaviour has been shown to correlate with activity levels, risk-taking and boldness, and these are behaviours that may plausibly influence EPP. Exploration behaviour correlated positively with paternity gained outside the social pair among males in our population, but there was also a negative correlation with paternity in the social nest. Hence, while variation in male personality predicted the relative importance of paternity gain within and outside the pair bond, total paternity gained was unrelated to exploration behaviour. We found evidence that males paired with bold females were more likely to sire extra-pair young. Our data thus demonstrate a link between personality and promiscuity, with no net effects on reproductive success, suggesting personality-dependent mating tactics, in contrast with traditional adaptive explanations for promiscuity.

No abstract

Genes involved in immune defense against pathogens provide some of the most well-known examples of both directional and balancing selection. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are innate immune effector genes, playing a key role in pathogen clearance in many species, including Drosophila. Conflicting lines of evidence have suggested that AMPs may be under directional, balancing, or purifying selection. Here, we use both a linear model and control-gene-based approach to show that balancing selection is an important force shaping AMP diversity in Drosophila. In Drosophila melanogaster, this is most clearly observed in ancestral African populations. Furthermore, the signature of balancing selection is even more striking once background selection has been accounted for. Balancing selection also acts on AMPs in Drosophila mauritiana, an isolated island endemic separated from D. melanogaster by about 4 Myr of evolution. This suggests that balancing selection may be broadly acting to maintain adaptive diversity in Drosophila AMPs, as has been found in other taxa.

In many socially monogamous animals, females engage in extrapair copulation (EPC), causing some broods to contain both within-pair and extrapair young (EPY). The proportion of all young that are EPY varies across populations and species. Because an EPC that does not result in EPY leaves no forensic trace, this variation in the proportion of EPY reflects both variation in the tendency to engage in EPC and variation in the extrapair fertilization (EPF) process across populations and species. We analyzed data on the distribution of EPY in broods of four passerines (blue tit, great tit, collared flycatcher, and pied flycatcher), with 18,564 genotyped nestlings from 2,346 broods in two to nine populations per species. Our Bayesian modeling approach estimated the underlying probability function of EPC (assumed to be a Poisson function) and conditional binomial EPF probability. We used an information theoretical approach to show that the expected distribution of EPC per female varies across populations but that EPF probabilities vary on the above-species level (tits vs. flycatchers). Hence, for these four passerines, our model suggests that the probability of an EPC mainly is determined by ecological (population-specific) conditions, whereas EPF probabilities reflect processes that are fixed above the species level.