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A greyscale-based fully automatic deformable image registration algorithm, originally known as the 'demons' algorithm, was implemented for CT image-guided radiotherapy. We accelerated the algorithm by introducing an 'active force' along with an adaptive force strength adjustment during the iterative process. These improvements led to a 40% speed improvement over the original algorithm and a high tolerance of large organ deformations. We used three methods to evaluate the accuracy of the algorithm. First, we created a set of mathematical transformations for a series of patient's CT images. This provides a 'ground truth' solution for quantitatively validating the deformable image registration algorithm. Second, we used a physically deformable pelvic phantom, which can measure deformed objects under different conditions. The results of these two tests allowed us to quantify the accuracy of the deformable registration. Validation results showed that more than 96% of the voxels were within 2 mm of their intended shifts for a prostate and a head-and-neck patient case. The mean errors and standard deviations were 0.5 mm+/-1.5 mm and 0.2 mm+/-0.6 mm, respectively. Using the deformable pelvis phantom, the result showed a tracking accuracy of better than 1.5 mm for 23 seeds implanted in a phantom prostate that was deformed by inflation of a rectal balloon. Third, physician-drawn contours outlining the tumour volumes and certain anatomical structures in the original CT images were deformed along with the CT images acquired during subsequent treatments or during a different respiratory phase for a lung cancer case. Visual inspection of the positions and shapes of these deformed contours agreed well with human judgment. Together, these results suggest that the accelerated demons algorithm has significant potential for delineating and tracking doses in targets and critical structures during CT-guided radiotherapy.

The purpose of this work was to extend the verification of Monte Carlo based methods for estimating radiation dose in computed tomography (CT) exams beyond a single CT scanner to a multidetector CT (MDCT) scanner, and from cylindrical CTDI phantom measurements to both cylindrical and physical anthropomorphic phantoms. Both cylindrical and physical anthropomorphic phantoms were scanned on an MDCT under the specified conditions. A pencil ionization chamber was used to record exposure for the cylindrical phantom, while MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor) detectors were used to record exposure at the surface of the anthropomorphic phantom. Reference measurements were made in air at isocentre using the pencil ionization chamber under the specified conditions. Detailed Monte Carlo models were developed for the MDCT scanner to describe the x-ray source (spectra, bowtie filter, etc) and geometry factors (distance from focal spot to isocentre, source movement due to axial or helical scanning, etc). Models for the cylindrical (CTDI) phantoms were available from the previous work. For the anthropomorphic phantom, CT image data were used to create a detailed voxelized model of the phantom's geometry. Anthropomorphic phantom material compositions were provided by the manufacturer. A simulation of the physical scan was performed using the mathematical models of the scanner, phantom and specified scan parameters. Tallies were recorded at specific voxel locations corresponding to the MOSFET physical measurements. Simulations of air scans were performed to obtain normalization factors to convert results to absolute dose values. For the CTDI body (32 cm) phantom, measurements and simulation results agreed to within 3.5% across all conditions. For the anthropomorphic phantom, measured surface dose values from a contiguous axial scan showed significant variation and ranged from 8 mGy/100 mAs to 16 mGy/100 mAs. Results from helical scans of overlapping pitch (0.9375) and extended pitch (1.375) were also obtained. Comparisons between the MOSFET measurements and the absolute dose value derived from the Monte Carlo simulations demonstrate agreement in terms of absolute dose values as well as the spatially varying characteristics. This work demonstrates the ability to extend models from a single detector scanner using cylindrical phantoms to an MDCT scanner using both cylindrical and anthropomorphic phantoms. Future work will be extended to voxelized patient models of different sizes and to other MDCT scanners.

Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) and optically stimulated luminescent dosimeters (OSLD) are practical, accurate, and precise tools for point dosimetry in medical physics applications. The charges of Task Group 191 were to detail the methodologies for practical and optimal luminescence dosimetry in a clinical setting. This includes: (a) to review the variety of TLD/OSLD materials available, including features and limitations of each; (b) to outline the optimal steps to achieve accurate and precise dosimetry with luminescent detectors and to evaluate the uncertainty induced when less rigorous procedures are used; (c) to develop consensus guidelines on the optimal use of luminescent dosimeters for clinical practice; and (d) to develop guidelines for special medically relevant uses of TLDs/OSLDs such as mixed photon/neutron field dosimetry, particle beam dosimetry, and skin dosimetry. While this report provides general guidelines for TLD and OSLD processes, the report provides specific details for TLD‐100 and nanoDotTM dosimeters because of their prevalence in clinical practice.

Purpose-To quantify the differences between planned and delivered parotid gland and target doses, and to assess the benefits of daily bone alignment for head-and-neck cancer patients treated with intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT).Methods and Materials-Eleven head-and-neck cancer patients received 2 CT scans/week with an in-room CT scanner over their course of radiotherapy. The clinical IMRT plans, designed with 3-4mm planning margins, were recalculated on the repeat CT images. The plans were aligned using (1) the actual treatment isocenter marked with radiopaque markers (BB) and (2) bone alignment to the cervical vertebrae to simulate image-guided setup. In-house deformable image registration software was used to map daily dose distributions to the original treatment plan and to calculate a cumulative, delivered dose distribution for each patient.Results-Using conventional BB alignment led to increases in the parotid gland mean dose above the planned dose by 5-7Gy in 45% of the patients (median = 3.0Gy ipsilateral (p=0.026); median = 1.0Gy contralateral (p=0.016)). Use of bone alignment led to reductions relative to BB alignment in 91% of patients (median=2Gy; range=0.3-8.3Gy; 15 of 22 parotids improved). However, the parotid dose from bone alignment was still greater than planned (median=1.0Gy (p=0.007)). Neither approach affected tumor dose coverage.Conclusions-With conventional BB alignment, the parotid gland mean dose was significantly increased above the planned mean dose. Using daily bone alignment reduced the parotid dose compared to BB alignment in almost all patients. A 3-4 mm planning margin was adequate for tumor dose coverage.Correspondence and reprint requests to:

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Purpose-Auto-propagation of anatomical region-of-interests (ROIs) from the planning CT to daily CT is an essential step in image-guided adaptive radiotherapy. The goal of this study was to quantitatively evaluate the performance of the algorithm in typical clinical applications.Method and Materials-We previously adopted an image intensity-based deformable registration algorithm to find the correspondence between two images. In this study, the ROIs delineated on the planning CT image were mapped onto daily CT or four-dimentional (4D) CT images using the same transformation. Post-processing methods, such as boundary smoothing and modification, were used to enhance the robustness of the algorithm. Auto-propagated contours for eight head-and-neck patients with a total of 100 repeat CTs, one prostate patient with 24 repeat CTs, and nine lung cancer patients with a total of 90 4D-CT images were evaluated against physician-drawn contours and physician-modified deformed contours using the volume-overlap-index (VOI) and mean absolute surface-to-surface distance (ASSD).Results-The deformed contours were reasonably well matched with daily anatomy on repeat CT images. The VOI and mean ASSD were 83% and 1.3 mm when compared to the independently drawn contours. A better agreement (greater than 97% and less than 0.4 mm) was achieved if the physician was only asked to correct the deformed contours. The algorithm was robust in the presence of random noise in the image.Conclusion-The deformable algorithm may be an effective method to propagate the planning ROIs to subsequent CT images of changed anatomy, although a final review by physicians is highly recommended.Correspondence and reprint requests to:

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