Aim Although vascular epiphytes are important components of species richness and complexity of Neotropical forests, vascular epiphytes are under-represented in large scale biogeographical analyses. We studied the diversity, biogeography and floristic relationships of the epiphytic flora of the Yasuní region (Western Amazonia) in a Neotropical context, with special emphasis on the influence of the Andean flora on floristic composition and diversity of surrounding lowland forests.Location Western Amazonian lowland rainforest, Tiputini Biodiversity Station (0°38¢ S 76°09¢ W, 230 m a.s.l., 650 ha), Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.Methods We compared the vascular epiphyte flora of Yasuní with 16 published Neotropical epiphyte inventories. Secondly, based on a floristic database with records of more than 70,000 specimens of vascular epiphytes from the Neotropics the elevational composition of eight selected inventories was analysed in detail. ResultsThe vascular epiphyte flora of Yasuní is characterized by a very high species richness (313 spp.). A moderate portion of species is endemic to the Upper Napo region (c. 10%). However, this figure is much higher than previous analyses primarily based on woody species suggested. Geographical ranges of these species match with a proposed Pleistocene forest refuge. Compared with Northern and Central Amazonian sites, Western Amazonian epiphyte communities are characterized by a higher portion of montane and submontane species. Species richness of vascular epiphytes at the sites was correlated with the amount of rainfall, which is negatively correlated with the number of dry months.Main conclusion Recent and historic patterns of rainfall are the driving forces behind diversity and floristic composition of vascular epiphytes in Western Amazonia: high annual rainfall in combination with low seasonality provides suitable conditions to harbour high species richness. The proximity to the Andes, the most important centre of speciation for most Neotropical epiphytic taxa, in combination with the climatic setting has allowed a continuous supply of species richness to the region. At least for epiphytes, the borderline between the Andean and Amazonian flora is much hazier than previously thought. Moreover, the comparatively moist climate in Western Amazonia during the Pleistocene has probably led to fewer extinctions and/or more speciation than in more affected surrounding lowlands.

Aim Epiphytes contribute up to 30% to the number of vascular plant species in certain global biodiversity hotspots, e.g. the Ecuadorian Andes. However, their large scale diversity patterns are still discussed on the base of results from a few, local epiphyte inventories. Consequently, explanatory models on epiphyte diversity concentrate on the impact of local climate on small scale epiphyte species richness. Our aim was to analyse large scale elevational patterns of epiphyte diversity integrating data from different geographic scales.Location Tropical America, with special emphasis on the Ecuadorian Andes.Methods Our study is based on two data sources. First, we analysed the elevational patterns of epiphyte diversity based on the Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Ecuador and the Libro Rojo de las Plantas Endèmicas del Ecuador. Secondly, the floristic turnover between the epiphyte inventories of seven montane and four lowland study sites in the Neotropics was analysed. ResultsThe floristic turnover between Neotropical montane epiphyte floras is higher than the one between lowland epiphyte floras. Montane study sites located only a few kilometres apart from each other show considerable differences in their epiphyte species inventories. Irrespectively of their similar dispersal mode, the floristic turnover is much higher for orchids than for Pteridophyta. The Orchidaceae are the species richest group in all of the examined 11 Neotropical epiphyte floras. At the larger scale of the Ecuadorian Flora, c. 50% of the species in the elevational zone with maximum epiphyte diversity (between 1000 and 1500 m) are orchids. Elevational patterns of epiphyte diversity strongly reflect patterns of Orchidaceae.Main conclusions Our results support the observation of a 'mid-elevation bulge' of epiphyte diversity by Gentry and Dodson. It has been frequently shown that the high humidity in mid-elevations is suitable to maintan a high epiphyte species richness. Our findings show that in addition, large scale epiphyte diversity in montane rain forest is increased by the high floristic turnover at local and regional scale. Based on the importance of Orchidaceae for epiphyte diversity, we discuss that speciation processes corresponding to the highly diverse environment are a driving force for endemism, floristic heterogeneity and consequently for large scale epiphyte species richness in montane forests.

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Epiphytes are diverse and important elements of tropical forests, but as canopy-dwelling organisms, they are highly vulnerable to deforestation. To assess the effect of deforestation on epiphyte diversity and the potential for epiphyte conservation in anthropogenically transformed habitats, we surveyed the epiphytic vegetation of an Ecuadorian cloud forest reserve and its surroundings. Our study was located on the western slopes of the Andes, a global center of biodiversity. We sampled vascular epiphytes of 110 study plots in a continuous primary forest; 14 primary forest fragments; isolated remnant trees in young, middle-aged, and old pastures; and young and old secondary forests. It is the first study to include all relevant types of habitat transformation at a single study site and to compare epiphyte diversity at different temporal stages of fragmentation. Epiphyte diversity was highest in continuous primary forest, followed by forest fragments and isolated remnant trees, and lowest in young secondary forests. Spatial parameters of habitat transformation, such as fragment area, distance to the continuous primary forest, or distance to the forest edge from inside the forest, had no significant effect on epiphyte diversity. Hence, the influence of dispersal limitations appeared to be negligible or appeared to operate only over very short distances, whereas microclimatic edge effects acted only in the case of completely isolated trees, but not in larger forest fragments. Epiphyte diversity increased considerably with age of secondary forests, but species assemblages on isolated remnant trees were impoverished distinctly with time since isolation. Thus, isolated trees may serve for recolonization of secondary forests, but only for a relatively short time. We therefore suggest that the conservation of even small patches of primary forest within agricultural landscape matrices is essential for the long-term maintenance of the high epiphyte diversity in tropical cloud forests.

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Aim Range‐restricted species account for a large proportion of global biodiversity, and many such species are highly threatened by deforestation and intensifying land use in the tropics. The effects of land use on the diversity of range‐restricted species have rarely been studied and remain unknown for vascular epiphytes – diverse and important elements of tropical forests. This study analyses the vulnerability of range‐restricted epiphyte species to human land use, compared to that of widespread species. Location Western Ecuador (Chocó ecoregion): lowland rain forest (Bilsa, 0°21′ N 79°44′ W, 450–650 m a.s.l.) and Andean cloud forest (Otonga, 0°25′ S 79°01′ W, 1650–2250 m a.s.l.). Methods The epiphytic vegetation of 220 study plots was surveyed. Distribution data based on herbarium specimens were compiled for all identified species in order to estimate their geographical and elevational ranges as well as the climatic conditions within the species' ranges. These range characteristics were compared for species found in contiguous primary forests, primary forest fragments, secondary forests, and for isolated remnant trees in pastures. Results Of the 587 identified epiphyte species, 252 were endemic to the Chocó ecoregion (42.9%). Chocó endemics were not more strongly affected by human land use than non‐endemics. However, small geographical ranges and narrow climatic niches were associated with higher vulnerability to habitat changes caused by land use. Epiphyte assemblages in young secondary forests had the lowest proportions of range‐restricted species and were dominated by species with broad elevational ranges. Species in secondary forests occupied the broadest ranges of mean annual temperature and precipitation; species on isolated remnant trees at the lowland site inhabited on average warmer and drier geographical ranges than species in the primary forest. Main conclusions Epiphyte species with restricted geographical distributions and narrow climatic tolerances are particularly vulnerable to human‐induced habitat changes, but endemism to national or biogeographical entities alone is a poor indicator of vulnerability. Instead, narrower ecological niches correlate with lower plasticity towards changes in microclimatic habitat conditions. Besides a higher extinction risk due to their small range sizes, many range‐restricted species might be threatened by their lower tolerance to the impacts of human land use.