The aim of this work was to assess the suitability of Miscanthus × giganteus and Spartina pectinata link to Cu, Ni, and Zn phytoremediation. A 2-year microplot experiment with the tested grasses growing on metal-contaminated soil was carried out. Microplots with cement borders, measuring 1 × 1 × 1m, were filled with Haplic Luvisols soil. Simulated soil contamination with Cu, Ni, and Zn was introduced in the following doses in mg kg(-1): 0-no metals, Cu1-100, Cu2-200, Cu3-400, Ni1-60, Ni2-100, Ni3-240, Zn1-300, Zn2-600, and Zn3-1200. The phytoremediation potential of grasses was evaluated using a tolerance index (TI), bioaccumulation factor (BF), bioconcentration factor (BCF), and translocation factor (TF). S. pectinata showed a higher tolerance to soil contamination with Cu, Ni, and Zn compared to M. × giganteus. S. pectinata was found to have a high suitability for phytostabilization of Zn and lower suitability of Cu and Ni. M. × giganteus had a lower phytostabilization potential than S. pectinata. The suitability of both grasses for Zn phytoextraction depended on the age of the plants. Both grasses were not suitable for Cu and Ni phytoextraction. The research showed that one-season studies were not valuable for fully assessing the phytoremediation potential of perennial plants.

Three strict field trials were conducted in 2003, 2004 and 2006, involving foliar application of boron to ten cultivars of winter wheat commonly grown in Poland. Boron was applied as 175 g. ha-1 of boracic acid. Foliar fertilization treatments caused a significant grain yield increase of four (Zyta, Kobra, Mewa and Pegassos) out of ten winter wheat cultivars. The average yield increment ranged between 9 and 15%. The cultivars which responded positively to the fertilization were the ones which produced the lowest yields on the control plots without boron. The nutritional demands of the cultivars Korweta, Kris, Soraja, Jawa, Symfonia and Sakwa for boron were much lower than those of the other cultivars. Although the foliar fertilisation with boron increased the concentration of this element in the shoots of these 6 cultivars, they did not respond with higher yield to the application of this element.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of Phalaris arundinacea, Salix viminalis and Zea mays to the phytoremediation of the soil contaminated with nickel. A 2-year microplot experiment was carried out with plants growing on Ni-contaminated soil. Microplots (1 m 2 × 1 m deep) were filled with Haplic Luvisols soil. Simulated soil contamination with Ni was introduced in the following doses: 0-no metals, Ni 1 -60, Ni 2 -100 and Ni 3 -240 mg kg −1 . The phytoremediation potential of plants was evaluated using a tolerance index, bioaccumulation factor, and translocation factor. None of the tested plants was a species with high Ni phytoremediation potential. All of them demonstrated a total lack of usefulness for phytoextraction; however, they can be in some way useful for phytostabilization. Z. mays accumulated large amounts of Ni in the roots, which made it useful for phytostabilization, but, at the same time, showed little tolerance to this metal. For this reason, it can be successfully used only on soils medium-contaminated with Ni, where a large yield decrease did not occur. Its biomass may be safely used as cattle feed, as the Ni transfer from roots to shoots was strongly restricted. P. arundinacea and S. viminalis accumulated too little Ni in the roots to be considered as typical phytostabilization plants. However, they may be helpful for phytostabilization due to their high tolerance to Ni. These plants can grow in the soil contaminated with Ni, acting as a protection against soil erosion or the spread of contamination.

In Poland, assessment of the content of micronutrients in soil is performed using 1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) as an extractant. The objective of this study has been to check whether 1 M HCl can be replaced by Mehlich 3. In total, 330 soil samples were taken from fields cropped with winter wheat. Each sample was accompanied by a sample of wheat plant. The samples were from four groups of soils having various pH values-from acidic to alkaline soils. The suitability of the extractants was evaluated separately for each soil group based on the significance and power of correlation between soil microelements extracted by both methods, soil and plant microelements, and the bioaccumulation factor. The HCl extractant was a better predictor of the availability of microelements to wheat than Mehlich 3 in all tested soil groups. Mehlich 3 can be applied for extraction of boron (B) and, in some cases, copper (Cu) and manganese (Mn).

To implement the Mehlich 3 method in Polish agro-chemical laboratories, limit values for deficiency of B, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn in soil for wheat were developed. The values were developed on the basis of 1921 fields with wheat, evenly distributed throughout Poland. Soil samples were collected from these fields in 2016, together with the plants growing on them, at the stage of stem elongation (BBCH 30/31). The concentration of micronutrients was determined in all soil and plant samples. In addition, pH, texture, and the content of organic carbon and available phosphorus were determined in soil samples. Moreover, grain yield after wheat harvest was estimated for all fields. Limit values were developed by two independent methods: 1) the regression equation method and 2) the so-called high yield method. In the first case, the limit microelement concentration in soil was calculated from the equation describing the relationship between the bioaccumulation factor (R/G) and a specific soil feature (n=1921). The bioaccumulation factor is the quotient of the concentration of a micronutrient in a plant (R) and its concentration in the soil (G) determined by the Mehlich 3 method. The equations were constructed using the Stagraphics program. For each micronutrient, 8 models were tested in search for the equation with the highest determination coefficient r2. Limit values were calculated after substituting the critical value of microelements in the plant (R) to the selected model and transforming the equation accordingly. The basis of the second method was to separate the “high yield group” ≥7.0 t ha−1 (n=578) from the entire data set. In this group, lower quintiles for the Mehlich 3-concentration of individual microelements in soil were calculated. The lower quintiles (QU1) were taken as limit values. It was assumed that QU1 is a good indicator of the lowest micronutrient concentration in the soil at which a yield of 7.0 t ha−1 or higher can be obtained. The comparison of the values calculated with the regression equations method and the high yield method showed their similarity, which confirmed the reliability of these values. The proposed values define the limit for low microelements concentration in soil determined with the Mehlich 3 method, below which wheat fertilization with these nutrients is recommended.

The aim of the study was to compare the toleration of Poa pratensis, Lolium perenne and Festuca rubra to cadmium contamination as well as the phytoremediation potential of these three species of grass. The pot experiment was conducted in four replications in pots containing 2.0 kg of soil. The soil was contaminated with three doses of Cd – 30, 60 and 120 mg·kg−1. After two months, the aerial parts of plants were harvested. The roots were dug up, brushed off from the remaining soil and washed with water. The biomass was defined and the cadmium concentration was determined in aerial parts and roots. The phytoremediation potential of grasses was evaluated using biomass of grasses, bioaccumulation factor (BF) and translocation factor (TF). All three tested species of grasses had TF < 1 and BF-root > 1. It indicates their suitability for phytostabilisation and makes them unsuitable for phytoextraction of Cd from the soil. Comparing the usefulness of the tested grasses for phytoremediation has shown that the phytostabilisation potential of P. pratensis was lower than that of L. perenne and F. rubra. P. pratensis was distinguished by higher TF, smaller root biomass and lower tolerance for Cd excess in the soil in comparison with the two other test grasses. At the same time, L. perenne was characterised by the smallest decrease in biomass and the largest Cd accumulation in roots at the lowest dose of Cd. It indicates good usefulness for phytostabilisation of soils characterised by a relatively small pollution by cadmium.

Incorporation of organic materials into soil improves the soil sorption capacity, while limiting the mobility of metals in soil and their availability to plants. These effects can be taken advantage for remediation of soils polluted with heavy metals. The objective of this study is to assess the remediatory potential of peat applied to soils with concomitant pollution with Cd, Pb, and Zn. Two 1-year experiments were run in microplots in which maize was grown as the test plant. The following treatments were compared on two soils (sandy soil and loess): (1) control, (2) heavy metals (HM), (3) HM + peat in a single dose, and (4) HM + peat in a double dose. Maize was harvested in the maturity stage; the biomass of roots and aerial parts, including grain and cobs, was measured. Besides, concentration of metals in all those plant parts and the net photosynthetic rate and transpiration rate were determined. The approach of using peat in soil remediation led to satisfactory results on sandy soil only. The application of peat to sandy soil caused significant changes in the accumulation of the metals and their translocation from roots to other parts of plants, which resulted in a higher intensity of photosynthesis and an increase in the maize biomass compared to the HM treatment.

The aim of the study was to compare soil and foliar application of Si to relieve stress in wheat caused by excess Zn in the soil. Two pot experiments were carried out in which the soil was contaminated with zinc sulphate at the dose of 600 mg kg−1 Zn before sowing. Si was applied in the soil in the following doses 200 mg kg−1 and 400 mg kg−1 Si and as foliar spraying in concentrations 2 mM L−1 and 6 mM L−1 Si in the form of sodium silicate. The applied dose of Zn was toxic to wheat and caused a significant decrease in the biomass of shoots and roots. Soil application of Si reduced the negative effect of Zn on plants and significantly increased the biomass of the tested organs. The foliar application of Si did not reduce the decrease of plant biomass. Soil contamination with Zn caused a drastic increase in Zn concentration in shoots and roots, while Si applied in the soil significantly decreased this concentration. The increase in soil pH, which was caused by sodium silicate, also affected the decrease in Zn concentration in plants. The plants absorbed Si applied to the soil, which is indicated by an increase in the Si content in shoots compared to the control. In the case of foliar spraying, only a higher dose of Si increased its concentration in the plants. The application of Si in the soil, in contrast to foliar application, reduced the transfer of Zn from roots to shoots. The higher effectiveness of soil application of Si than foliar application in alleviating the toxicity of Zn was associated with both an increase in pH and a higher uptake of Si by plants.